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How It Flies 

or, 
THE CONQUEST OF THE AIR 



The Story of Man's Endeavors to Fly and of the 
Inventions by w^hich He Has Succeeded 



By 
RICHARD FERRIS. B.S., C.E. 



Illustrated by Over One Hundred and Fifty Half-tones and Line 

Drawings, Showing the Stages of Development from the 

Earliest BallooQ to the Latest Monoplane and Biplane 



New York 
THOMAS NELSON AND SONS 

381-385 Fourth Avenue 






i'^:,4 



Copyright, 1910, by 
THOMAS NELSON & SONS 



•v^^ 



^■1 



THE TROW PRESS, NEW YORK 



CCI.A27844S 



PREFACE 

IN these pages, by means of simple language and 
suitable pictures, the author has told the story of 
the Ships of the Air. He has explained the laws of 
their flight; sketched their development to the pres- 
ent day ; shown how to build the flying machine and 
the balloon, and how to operate them; recounted 
what man has done, and what he hopes to do with 
their aid. In a word, all the essential facts that 
enter into the Conquest of the Air have been gath- 
ered into orderly form, and are here presented to 
the public. 

We who live to-day have witnessed man's great 
achievement; we have seen his dream of ages come 
true. Man has learned to -fly! 

The air which surrounds us, so intangible and so 
commonplace that it seldom arrests our attention, is 
in reality a vast, unexplored ocean, fraught with 
future possibilities. Even now, the pioneers of a 



PREFACE 

countless fleet are liovering above us in the sky, while 
steadily, surely these wonderful possibilities are 
unfolded. 

The Publishers take pleasure in acknowledging 
their indebtedness to the Scientific American for 
their courtesy in permitting the use of many of the 
illustrations appearing in this book* 

New York, October 20^ 1910, 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 

I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 



Preface - . . . 

istteoductoby 

The Air .... 

Laws of Flight . 

Flying Machines 

Flying Machines : The Biplane 

Flying Machines: The Mono- 



pace 

7 

11 

20 

37 
55 
78 



VII. 


Flying Machikes: Other 


Forms 


141 


VIII. 


Flying Machines: How to Op- 






erate . . . , . 


• 


151 


IX. 


Flying Machines: How to 


Build 


174 


X. 


Flying Machines: Motors 


• 


193 


XI. 


Model Flying Machines 


. 


215 


XII. 


The Glider . » . . 


. 


241 


XIII. 


Balloons ... * 


• • 


257 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XIV. Balloons: The Dirigible . . 296 

XV. Balloons : How to Operate . 340 

XVI. Balloons: How to Make . 351 

XVII. Military Aeronautics . o o 363 

XVIII. Biographies of Prominent Aero- 
nauts . . . . . . c 379 

XIX. Chronicle of Aviation Achieve- 
ments 407 

XX. Explanation of Aeronautical 

Terms 452 



HOW IT FLIES 



Chapter I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

The sudden awakening — Early successes — Influence of the gaso- 
line engine on aeroplanes — On dirigible balloons — Inter- 
ested inquiry — Some general terms defined. 

IN the year 1908 the world awakened suddenly to 
the realization that at last the centuries of man's 
endeavor to fly mechanically had come to successful 
fruition. 

There had been a little warning. In the late 
autumn of 1906^ Santos-Dumont made a flight of 
720 feet in a power-driven machine. There was an 
exclamation of wonder, a burst of applause — then a 
relapse into unconcern. 

In August, 1907, Louis Bleriot sped free of the 
ground for 470 feet; and in November, Santos- 
Dumont made two flying leaps of barely 500 feet. 
That was the year's record, and it excited little com- 
ment. It is true that the Wright brothers had been 

11 



12 INTRODUCTORY. 

making long flights, but they were in secret. There 
was no public knowledge of them. 

In 1908 came the revelation. In March, Dela- 
grange flew in a Voisin biplane 453 feet, carrying 
Farman with him as a passenger. Two weeks later 
he flew alone nearly 2^ miles. In May he flew 
nearly 8 miles. In June his best flight was 10-| 
miles. Bleriot came on the scene again in July with 
a monoplane, in which he flew 3f miles. In Septem- 
ber, Delagrange flew 15 miles — in less than 30 min- 
utes. In the same month the Wrights began their 
wonderful public flights. Wilbur, in France, made 
records of 41, 46, 62, and 77 miles, while Orville 
flew from 40 to 50 miles at Fort Myer, Va. Wilbur 
Wright's longest flight kept him in the air 2 hours 
and 20 minutes. 

The goal had been reached — ^men had achieved the 
apparently impossible. The whole world was roused 
to enthusiasm. 

Since then, progress has been phenomenally rapid, 
urged on by the striving of the inventors, the compe- 
tition of the aircraft builders, and the contests for 
records among the pilots. 

By far the largest factor in the triumph of the 
aeroplane is the improved gasoline engine, designed 



INTRODUCTORY, 



13 



originally for automobiles. Without this wonderful 
type of motor, delivering a maximum of power with 
a minimum of weight, from concentrated fuel, the 
flying machine would still be resting on the earth. 

Nor has the influence of the gasoline motor been 
much less upon that other great class of aircraft, the 



^■H^BiP^w 






The Renard and Krebs airship La France, at Chalais-Meudon. 

dirigible balloon. After 1885, when Renard and 
Krebs' airship La France made its two historic 
voyages from Chalais-Meudon to Paris, returning 
safely to its shed, under the propulsion of an electric 
motor, the problem of the great airship lay dormant, 
waiting for the discovery of adequate motive power. 
If the development of the dirigible balloon seems 



14 INTRODUCTORY. 

less spectacular than that of the aeroplane, it is 
because the latter had to be created; the dirigible, 
already in existence, had only to be revivified. 

Confronted with these new and strange shapes in 
the sky, some making stately journeys of hundreds 
of miles, others whirring hither and thither with the 
speed of the whirlwind, wonder quickly gives way 
to the all-absorbing question: How do they fly? To 
answer fully and satisfactorily, it seems wise, for 
many readers, to recall in the succeeding chapters 
some principles doubtless long since forgotten. 

As with every great advance in civilization, this 
expansion of the science of aeronautics has had its 
effect upon the language of the day. Terms formerly 
in use have become restricted in application, and 
other terms have been coined to convey ideas so en- 
tirely new as to find no suitable word existent in our 
language. It seems requisite, therefore, first to ac- 
quaint the reader with clear definitions of the more 
common terms that are used throughout this book. 

Aeronautics is the word employed to designate the 
entire subject of aerial navigation. An aeronaut is 
a person who sails, or commands, any form of air- 
craft, as distinguished from a passenger. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



15 



Aviation is limited to the subject of flying by ma- 
chines which are not floated in the air by gas. An 
aviator is an operator of such machine. 




i 



A free balloon, with parachute. 



Both aviators and aeronauts are often called 
pilots, 

A balloon is essentially an envelope or bag filled 



16 



INTRODUCTORY, 



with some gaseous substance which is lighter, bulk 
for bulk, than the air at the surface of the earth, and 
which serves to float the apparatus in the air. In its 
usual form it is spherical, with a car or basket sus- 
pended below it. It is a captive balloon if it is at- 





A dirigible balloon. 



tached to the ground by a cable, so that it may not 
rise above a certain level, nor float away in the wind. 
It is a free halloon if not so attached or anchored, 
but is allowed to drift where the wind may carry it, 
rising and falling at the will of the pilot. 

A dirigible balloon, sometimes termed simply a 
dirigible, usually has its gas envelope elongated in 
form. It is fitted with motive power to propel it, 



INTRODUCTORY, 



17 



and steering mechanism to guide it. It is distinct- 
ively the airship. 

Aeroplanes are those forms of flying machines 
which depend for their support in the air npon the 
spread of surfaces which are variously called wings, 
sailsj or planes. They are commonly driven by pro- 
pellers actuated by motors. When not driven by 
power they are called gliders. 




A biplane glider 



Aeroplanes exist in several types: the monoplane, 
with one spread of surface ; the biplane, with two 
spreads, one above the other ; the triplane, with three 
spreads, or decks ; the multiplane, with more than 
three. 
2 



18 INTRODUCTORY. 

The tetrahedral plane is a structure of many small 
cells set one upon another. 

OmitJwpter is the name given to a flyine; machine 
which is operated by flapping wings. 




Helicopter is used to designate machines which 
are lifted vertically and sustained in the air by pro- 
p€>llers revolving in a horizontal plane, as distin- 
guished from the propellers of the aeroplane, which 
revolve in vertical planes. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



19 



A "parachute is an umbrella-like contrivance by 
which an aeronaut may descend gently from a bal- 
loon in mid-air, buoyed up by the compression of the 
air under the umbrella. 

For the definition of other and more technical 
terms the reader is referred to the carefully pre- 
pared Glossary toward the end of the book. 



Chapter 11. 
THE AIR. 

Intangibility of air — Its substance — Weight — Extent — Density 
— Expansion by heat — Alcohol fire — Turbulence of the air 
— Inertia — Elasticity — Viscosity — Velocity of winds — Air- 
currents — Cloud levels — Aerological stations — High alti- 
tudes — Practical suggestions — The ideal highwaj\ 

THE air about us seems the nearest approach to 
nothingness that ^ve know of. A pail is com- 
monly said to be empty — to have nothing in it — 
when it is filled only with air. This is because our 
senses do not give us any information about air. We 
cannot see it, hear it, touch it. 

When air is in motion (wind) we hear the noises 
it makes as it passes among other objects more sub- 
stantial ; and we feel it as it blows by us, or when we 
move rapidly through it. 

We get some idea that it exists as a substance 

when we see dead leaves caught up in it and whirled 

about ; and, more impressively, when in the violence 

of the hurricane it seizes upon a body of great size 

20 ' 



THE AIR, 



21 



and weight, like the roof of a house, and whisks it 
away as though it were a feather, at a speed exceed- 
ing that of the fastest railroad train. 

In a milder form, this invisible and intangible air 
does some of our work for us in at least two ways 
that are conspicuous : it moves ships upon the ocean, 
and it turns a multitude of windmills, supplying the 
cheapest power known. 

That this atmosphere is really a fluid ocean, hav- 
ing a definite substance, and in some respects resem- 
bling the liquid ocean upon which our ships sail, and 
that we are only crawling around on the bottom of 
it, as it were, is a conception we do not readily 
grasp. Yet this conception must be the foundation 
of every effort to sail, to fly, in this aerial ocean, if 
such efforts are to be crowned with success. 

As a material substance the air has certain phys- 
ical properties, and it is the part of wisdom for the 
man who Avould fly to acquaint himself with these 
properties. If they are helpful to his flight, he wants 
to use them ; if they hinder, he must contrive to over- 
come them. 

In general, it may be said that the air, being in 
a gaseous form, partakes of the properties of all gases 
— and these may be studied in any text-book on. 



22 THE AIR. 

physios, lloro ^ve are eoncomod only with those 
qualities which affect conditions under which we 
strive to Hy. 

Of first importance is tlie fact that air has weiglit. 
That is, in common witli all other substances, it is 
attracted by the mass of the earth exerted through 
the force we call gravity. At the level of the sea, 
this attraction causes the air to press upon the earth 
with a weight of nearly fifteen pounds (accurately, 
14.7 lbs.) {o the square inch, when the temperature 
is at r)'J'' F. That pressure is the weight of a column 
of air one inch square at the base, extending upward 
to the outer limit of the atmosphere — estimated to 
be abou* r>S miles (some say 100 miles) above sea- 
level. The practical fact is that normal human 
life cannot exist above the level of 15,000 feet, 
or a little less than three miles; and navigation 
of the air will doubtless be carried on at a much 
lower altitude, for reasons which will appear as we 
coutiuTie. 

The actual weight of a definite quantity of dry 
air — for instance, a cubic foot — is found by weigh- 
ing a vessel first when full of air, and again after the 
air has been exhausted from it with an air-pump. In 
tliis wav it has been determined that a cubic foot of 




Upper limit of atmosphere, 38 miles. 



Unknown 
Region. 



Highest point reached by im.manned sound- 
ing balloon, IS miles. 



Highest point reached by manned balloon, 

35.500 feet. 
Mt. Everest, Himalaya Mts., 29,002 feet. 



Mt. McKinley, 20,480 feet. 
Mt. Blanc, 15,810 feet. 



Hospice of St. Bernard, 
habitation. 



highest human 



The height of the Eiffel Tower would not 
equal the thickness of this base-line. 



Comparative Elevations of Earth and Air. 



24 THE AIR. 

dry air, at the level of the sea^ and at a temperature 
of 32° F., weighs 565 grains— about 0.0807 lb. At a 
height above the level of the sea, a cubic foot of air 
will weigh less than the figure quoted, for its density 
decreases as we go upward, the pressure being less 
owing to the diminished attraction of the earth at 
the greater distance. For instance, at the height of 
a mile above sea-level a cubic foot of air will weigh 
about 433 grains, or 0.0619 lb. At the height of 
five miles it will weigh about 216 grains, or 0.0309 
lb. At thirty-eight miles it will have no weight at 
all, its density being so rare as just to balance the 
earth's attraction. It has been calculated that the 
whole bodv of air above the earth, if it were all of 
the uniform density of that at sea-level, would ex- 
tend only to the height of 26,166 feet. Perhaps a 
clearer comprehension of the weight and pressure of 
the ocean of air upon the earth may be gained by 
recalling that the pressure of the 38 miles of atmos- 
phere is just equal to balancing a column of water 
33 feet high. The pressure of the air, therefore, is 
equivalent to the pressure of a flood of water 33 feet 
deep. 

But air is seldom dry. It is almost always min- 
gled with the vapor of water, and this vapor weighs 



THE AIR. 



25 



only 352 grains per cubic foot at sea-level. Conse- 
quently the mixture — clamp air — is lighter than dry 
air, in proportion to the moisture it contains. 




Apparatus to show effects of heat on air currents, a, alcohol lamp; 
b, ice. The arrows show direction of currents. 

Another fact very important to the aeronaut is 
that the air is in constant motion. Owing to its 
ready expansion by heat, a body of air occupying one 



26 THE AIR. 

cubic foot when at a temperature of 32° F. will 
occupy more space at a higher temperature, and less 
space at a lower temperature. Hence, heated air will 
flow upward until it reaches a point where the natu- 
ral density of the atmosphere is the same as its ex- 
panded density due to the heating. Here another 
complication comes into play, for ascending air is 
cooled at the rate of one degree for every 183 feet it 
rises; and as it cools it grows denser, and the speed 
of its ascension is thus gradually checked. After 
passing an altitude of 1,000 feet the decrease in tem- 
perature is one degree for each 320 feet of ascent. 
In general, it may be stated that air is expanded one- 
tenth of its volume for each 50° F. that its tempera- 
ture is raised. 

This highly unstable condition under ordinary 
changes of temperature causes continual movements 
in the air, as different portions of it are constantly 
seeking that position in the atmosphere where their 
density at that moment balances the earth's at- 
traction. 

Sir Hiram Maxim relates an incident which aptly 
illustrates the effect of change of temperature upon 
the air. He says : " On one occasion, many years 
ago, I was present when a bonded warehouse in 



THE AIR, 27 

I^ew York containing 10,000 barrels of alcohol was 
burned. ... I walked completely around the fire, 
and found things just as I expected. The wind was 
blowing a perfect hurricane through every street in 
the direction of the fire, although it was a dead calm 
everywhere else ; the flames mounted straight in the 
air to an enormous height, and took with them a 
large amount of burning wood. When I was fully 
500 feet from the fire, a piece of partly burned one- 
inch board, about 8 inches wide and 4 feet long, fell 
through the air and landed near me. This board had 
evidently been taken up to a great height by the 
tremendous uprush of air caused by the burning 
alcohol.'' 

That which happened on a small scale, with a vio- 
lent change of temperature, in the case of the alcohol 
fire, is taking place on a larger scale, with milder 
changes in temperature, all over the world. The 
heating by the sun in one locality causes an expan- 
sion of air at that place, and cooler, denser air rushes 
in to fill the partial vacuum. In this way winds are 
produced. 

So the air in which we are to fly is in a state of 
constant motion, which may be likened to the rush 
and swirl of water in the rapids of a mountain tor- 



28 



THE AIR. 



rent. The tremendous difference is that the perils 
of the water are in plain sight of the navigator^ and 
may be guarded against^, while those of the air are 




The solid arrows show the directions of a cyclonic wind on the earth's surface. 
At the centre the currents go directly upward. In the upper air above the 
cyclone the currents have the directions of the dotted arrows. 



wholly invisible, and must be met as they occur^ 
without a moment's warning. 

l^ext in importance, to the aerial navigator, is the 
air's resistance. This is due in part to its density at 
the elevation at which he is flying, and in part to the 
direction and intensity of its motion, or the wind. 



THE AIR. 



29 



While this resistance is far less than that of water 
to the passage of a ship^ it is of serious moment to 
the aeronaut, who must force his fragile machine 
through it at great speed, and be on the alert every 
instant to combat the possibility of a fall as he passes 
into a rarer and less buoyant stratum. 

Three j)roperties of the air enter into the sum total 
of its resistance — inertia, elasticity, and viscosity. 
Inertia is its tendency to remain in the condition in 



SfSi .... . 'fc. 


E 




> ^ 




--:___V-3^V:V:::;.'^^^^^^^ 


^^^^^^^B 



Diagram showing disturbance of wind currents by inequalities of the ground, 
and the smoother currents of the upper air. Note the increase of density 
at A and B, caused by compression against the upper strata. 

which it may be : at rest, if it is still ; in motion, if 
it is moving. Some force must be applied to disturb 
this inertia, and in consequence when the inertia is 
overcome a certain amount of force is used up in the 



30 THE AIR, 

operation. Elasticity is that property by virtue of 
which air tends to reoccupy its normal amount of 
space after disturbance. An illustration of this tend- 
ency is the springing back of the handle of a bicycle 
pump if the valve at the bottom is not open, and the 
air in the pump is simply compressed, not forced into 
the tire. Viscosity may be described as " stickiness '' 
— ^the tendency of the particles of air to cling to- 
gether, to resist separation. To illustrate: molasses, 
particularly in cold weather, has greater viscosity 
than water; varnish has greater viscosity than tur- 
pentine. Air exhibits some viscosity, though vastly 
less than that of cold molasses. However, though 
relatively slight, this viscosity has a part in the re- 
sistance which opposes the rapid flight of the airship 
and aeroplane ; and the higher the speed, the greater 
the retarding effect of viscosity. 

The inertia of the air, while in some degree it 
blocks the progress of his machine, is a benefit to the 
aeronaut, for it is inertia which gives the blades of 
his propeller '' hold " upon the air. The elasticity of 
the air, compressed under the curved surfaces of the 
aeroplane, is believed to be helpful in maintaining 
the lift. The effect of viscosity may be greatly re- 
duced by using surfaces finished with polished var- 



THE AIR. 



31 



nish — just as greasing a knife will permit it to be 
passed with less friction throngh thick molasses. 

In the case of winds, the inertia of the moving 
mass becomes what is cmmonly termed '' wind pres- 
sure '' against any object not moving with it at an 
equal speed. The following table gives the measure- 
ments of wind pressure, as recorded at the station on 
the Eiffel Tower, for differing velocities of wind : 



Velocity 


Velocity 


Pressure 


in Miles 


in Feet 


in Pounds on 


per Hour 


per Second 


a Square Foot 


2 


2.9 


0.012 


4 


5.9 


0.048 


6 


8.8 


0.108 


8 


11.7 


0.192 


10 


14.7 


0.300 


15 


22.0 


0.675 


20 


29.4 


1.200 


25 


36.7 


1.875 


30 


44.0 


2.700 


35 


51.3 


3.675 


40 


58.7 


4.800 


45 


66.0 - 


6.075 


50 


73.4 


7.500 


60 


88.0 


10.800 


70 


102.7 


14.700 


80 


117.2 


19.200 


90 


132.0 


24.300 


100 


146.7 


30.000 



In applying this table, the velocity to be consid- 
ered is the net velocity of the movements of the air- 



32 



THE AIR, 



ship and of the wind. If the ship is moving 20 miles 
an hour against a head wind blowing 20 miles an 
hour, the net velocity of the wind will be 40 miles an 
hour^ and the pressure 4.8 lbs. a square foot of sur- 
face presented. Therefore the airship will be stand- 




Apparatus for the study of the action of air in motion; a blower at the farther 
end of the great tube sends a "wind" of any desired velocity through it. 
Planes and propellers of various forms are thus tested. 



ing stillj so far as objects on the ground are con- 
cerned. If the ship is sailing 20 miles an hour with 
the wind^ which is blowing 20 miles an hour, the 
pressure per square foot will be only 1.2 lbs. ; while 
as regards objects on the ground, the ship will be 
travelling 40 miles an hour. 



THE AIR. 33 

Systematic study of the movements of the air 
currents has not been widespread, and has not pro- 
gressed much beyond the gathering of statistics which 
may serve as useful data in testing existing theories 
or formulating new ones. 

It is already recognized that there are certain 
" tides '' in the atmosphere, recurring twice daily in 
six-hour periods, as in the case of the ocean tides, 
and perhaps from the same causes. Other currents 
are produced by the earth's rotation. Then there 
are the five-day oscillations noted by Eliot in India, 
and daily movements, more or less regular, due to the 
sun's heat by day and the lack of it by night. The 
complexity of these motions makes scientific research 
extremely difficult. 

Something definite has been accomplished in the 
determination of wind velocities, though this varies 
largely with the locality. In the United States the 
average speed of the winds is 9^ miles per hour ; in 
Europe, 10^ miles; in Southern Asia, 6^ miles; in 
the West Indies, 6^ miles; in England, 12 miles; 
over the North Atlantic Ocean, 29 miles per hour. 
Each of these average velocities varies with the time 
of year and time of day, and with the distance 
from the sea. The wind moves faster over water 
3 



34 



THE AIR. 



and flat, bare land than over hilly or forest-covered 
areas. Velocities increase as we go upward in the 
air, being at 1,600 feet twice what they are at 100 
feet. Observations of the movements of cloud forms 
at the Blue Hill Observatory, near Boston, give the 
following results: 



Cloud Form 


Height 
in Feet 


Average Speed 
per Hour 


Stratus 


1,676 

5,326 

12,724 

21,888 
29,317 


19 miles. 
24 miles. 
34 miles. 
71 miles. 
78 miles. 


Cumulus 


Alto-cumulus 


Cirro-cumulus 


Cirrus 





In winter the speed of cirrus clouds may reach 
96 miles per hour. 

There are forty-nine stations scattered over Ger- 
many where statistics concerning winds are gathered 
expressly for the use of aeronauts. At many of these 
stations records have been kept for twenty years. 
Dr. Richard Assman, director of the aerological ob- 
servatory at Lindenburg, has prepared a comprehen- 
sive treatise of the statistics in possession of these 
stations, under the title of Die Winde in Deutsch- 
land. It shows for each station, and for each sea- 
son of the year, how often the wind blows from each 



THE AIR. 35 

point of the compass; the average frequency of the 
several degrees of wind ; when and where aerial voy- 
ages may safely be made ; the probable drift of dirigi- 
bles, etc. It is interesting to note that Friedrichs- 
hafen, where Connt Zeppelin's great airship sheds 
are located, is not a favorable place for such vessels, 
having a yearly record of twenty-four stormy days, 
as compared with but two stormy days at Celle, four 
at Berlin, four at Cassel, and low records at several 
other points. 

In practical aviation, a controlling factor is the 
density of the air. We have seen that at an altitude 
of five miles the density is about three-eighths the 
density at sea-level. This means that the supporting 
power of the air at a five-mile elevation is so small 
that the area of the planes must be increased to more 
than 2| times the area suited to fiying near the 
ground, or that the speed must be largely increased. 
Therefore the adjustments necessary for rising at the 
lower level and journeying in the higher level are too 
large and complex to make flying at high altitudes 
practicable — leaving out of consideration the bitter 
cold of the upper regions. 

Mr. A. Lawrence Rotch, director of the Blue Hill 
Observatory, in his valuable book. The Conquest of 



36 THE AIR. 

the Air, gives this practical siimmary of a long 
series of studious observations : " At night, however, 
because there are no ascending currents, the wind is 
much steadier than in the daytime, making night the 
most favorable time for aerial navigation of all 
kinds. ... A suitable height in the daytime, unless 
a strong westerly wind is sought, lies above the cumu- 
lus clouds^ at the height of about a mile ; but at night 
it is not necessary to rise so high ; and in summer a 
region of relatively little wind is found at a height of 
about three-fourths of a mile, where it is also warmer 
and drier than in the daytime or at the ground.'' 

Notwithstanding all difficulties, the fact remains 
that, once they are overcome, the air is the ideal high- 
way for travel and transportation. On the sea, a 
ship may sail to right or left on one plane only. In 
the air, we may steer not only to right or left, but 
above and below, and obliquely in innumerable planes. 
We shall not need to traverse long distances in a 
wrong direction to find a bridge by which we may 
cross a river, nor zigzag for toilsome miles up the 
steep slopes of a mountain-side to the pass where we 
may cross the divide. The course of the airship is 
the proverbial bee-line — the most economical in time 
as well as in distance. 



Chapter III. 
LAWS OF FLIGHT. 

The bird — Nature's models — Man's methods — Gravity — The bal- 
loon — The airship — Resistance of the air — Winds — The 
kite — Laws of motion and force — Application to kite-flying 
— Aeroplanes. 

IF we were asked to explain tlie word '' flying '' to 
some foreigner who did not know wdiat it meant, 
we should probably give as an illustration the bird. 
This would be because the bird is so closely associ- 
ated in our thoughts with flying that we can hardly 
think of the one without the other. 

It is natural, therefore, that since men first had 
the desire to fly they should study the form and mo- 
tions of the birds in the air, and try to copy them. 
Our ancestors built immense flopping wings, into the 
frames of which they fastened themselves, and with 
great muscular exertion of arms and legs strove to 
attain the results that the bird gets by apparently 
similar motions. 

However, this mental coupling of the bird with 
37 



38 LAWS OF FLIGHT. 

the laws of flight has been unfortunate for the 
achievement of flight by man. And this is true even 
to the present day, with its hundreds of successful 
flying machines that are not in the least like a bird. 
This wrongly coupled idea is so strong that scientific 
publications print pages of research by eminent con- 
tributors into the flight of birds, with the attempt to 
deduce lessons therefrom for the instruction of the 
builders and navigators of flying machines. 

These arguments are based on the belief that 
^Nature never makes a mistake ; that she made the 
bird to fly, and therefore the bird must be the most 
perfect model for the successful flying machine. But 
the truth is, the bird was not made primarily to fly, 
any more than man was made to walk. Flying is an 
incident in the life of a bird, just as walking is an 
incident in the life of a man. Flying is simply a 
bird's way of getting about from place to place, on 
business or on pleasure, as the case may be. 

Santos-Dumont, in his fascinating book. My Air- 
Ships, points out the folly of blindly following E'a- 
ture by showing that logically such a procedure 
would compel us to build our locomotives on the plan 
of gigantic horses, with huge iron legs which would 
go galloping about the country in a ridiculously ter- 



LAWS OF FLIGHT. 39 

rible fashion ; and to construct our steamsliips on the 
plan of giant whales, with monstrous flapping fins 
and wildly lashing tails. 

Sir Hiram Maxim says something akin to this in 
his work, Artificial and Natural Flight: "It ap- 
pears to me that there is nothing in Nature which is 
more efficient, or gets a better grip on the water, than 
a well-made screw propeller ; and no doubt there 
would have been fish with screw propellers, provid- 
ing Dame Ifature could have made an animal in two 
pieces. It is very evident that no living creature 
could be made in two pieces, and two pieces are 
necessary if one part is stationary and the other re- 
volves; however, the tails and fins very often ap- 
proximate to the action of propeller blades ; they 
turn first to the right and then to the left, producing 
a sculling effect which is practically the same. This 
argument might also be used against locomotives. In 
all Nature we do not find an animal travelling on 
wheels, but it is quite possible that a locomotive 
might be made that would walk on legs at the rate 
of two or three miles an hour. But locomotives with 
wheels are able to travel at least three times as fast 
as the fleetest animal with legs, and to continue 
doing so for many hours at a time, even when at- 



40 LAWS OF FLIGHT. 

tached to a very heavy load. In order to build a fly- 
ing machine with flapping wings^ to exactly imitate 
birds, a very complicated system of levers, cams, 
cranks, etc., would have to be employed, and these of 
themselves wonld weigh more than the wings would 
be able to lift." 

As with the man-contrived locomotive, so the i)er- 
fected airship will be evolved from man's under- 
standing of the obstacles to his navigation of the air, 
and his overcoming of them by his inventive genius. 
This will not be in ^Nature's way, but in man's own 
way, and with cleverly designed machinery such as 
he has used to accomplish other seeming impossibili- 
ties. With the clearing up of wrong conceptions, the 
path will be open to more rapid and more enduring 
progress. 

When we consider the problem of flying, the first 
obstacle we encounter is the attraction which the 
earth has for us and for all other objects on its sur- 
face. This w^e call weight, and we are accustomed 
to measure it in pounds. 

Let us take, for example, a man whose body is at- 
tracted by the earth with a force, or weight, of 150 
pounds. To enable him to rise into the air, means 
must be contrived not only to counteract his weight, 



LAWS OF FLIGHT. 41 

but to lift him — a force a little greater than 150 
pounds must be exerted. We may attach to him a 
bag filled with some gas (as hydrogen) for which the 
earth has less attraction than it has for air, and which 
the air will push out of the way and upward until a 
place above tlie earth is reached where the attraction 
of air and gas is equal. A bag of this gas large 
enough to be pushed upward with a force equal to 
the weight of the man, plus the w^eight of the bag, 
and a little more for lifting power, will carry the 
man up. This is the principle of the ordinary 
balloon. 

Rising in the air is not flying. It is a necessary 
step, but real flying is to travel from place to place 
through the air. To accomplish this, some mechan- 
ism, or machinery, is needed to propel the man after 
he has been lifted into the air. Such machinery will 
have weight, and the bag of gas must be enlarged to 
counterbalance it. When this is done, the man and 
the bag of gas may move through the air, and with 
suitable rudders he may direct his course. This com- 
bination of the lifting bag of gas and the propelling 
machinery constitutes the dirigible balloon, or air- 
ship. 

The airship is affected equally with the balloon by 



42 



LAWS OF FLIGHT. 



prevailing winds. A breeze blowing 10 miles an 
hour will carry a balloon at nearly that speed in the 




-^$S 




Degen's apparatus to lift the man and his flying mechanism with the aid of 
a gas-balloon. See Chapter IV. 

direction in which it is blowing. Suppose the aero- 
naut wishes to sail in the opposite direction ? If the 



LAWS OF FLIGHT. 43 

machinery will propel his airship only 10 miles an 
hour in a calm^ it will virtnally stand still in the 
10-mile breeze. If the machinery will propel his 
airship 20 miles an hour in a calm, the ship will 
travel 10 miles an hour — as related to places on the 
earth's surface — against the wind. But so far as the 
air is concerned^ his speed through it is 20 miles 
an hour, and each increase of speed meets increased 
resistance from the air, and requires a greater ex- 
penditure of power to overcome. To reduce this re- 
sistance to the least possible amount, the globular 
form of the early balloon has been variously modi- 
fied. Most modern airships have a '' cigar-shaped '' 
gas bag, so called because the ends look like the tip 
of a cigar. As far as is known, this is the balloon 
that offers less resistance to the air than any other. 
Another mechanical means of getting up into the 
air was suggested by the flying of kites, a pastime 
dating back at least 2,000 years, perhaps longer. 
Ordinarily, a kite will not fly in a calm, but with 
even a little breeze it will mount into the air by the 
upward thrust of the rushing breeze against its in- 
clined surface, being prevented from blowing away 
(drifting) by the pull of the kite-string. The same 
effect will be produced in a dead calm if the opera- 



44 LAWS OF FLIGHT. 

tor^ holding the stringy runs at a speed equal to that 
of the breeze — with this important difference : not 
only will the kite rise in the air^ but it will travel 
in the direction in which the operator is runnings a 
part of the energy of the runner's pull upon the 
string producing a forward motion^ provided he 
holds the string taut. If we suppose the pull on the 
string to be replaced by an engine and revolving pro- 
peller in the kite^ exerting the same force^ we have 
exactly the principle of the aeroplane. 

As it is of the greatest importance to possess a 
clear understanding of the natural processes we pro- 
pose to usCj let us refer to any text-book on physics, 
and review briefly some of the natural laws relating 
to motion and force which apply to the problem of 
flight : 

(a) Force is that power which changes or 
tends to change the position of a body, whether 
it is in motion or at rest. 

(&) A given force will produce the same ef- 
fect, whether the body on which it acts is acted 
upon by that force alone, or by other forces 
at the same time. 

(c) A force may be represented graphically 



46 LAWS OF FLIGHT. 

by a straight line— the point at which the force 
is applied being the beginning of the line; the 
direction of the force being expressed by the di- 
rection of the line ; and the magnitude of the 
force being expressed by the length of the line. 

(d) Two or more forces acting upon a body 
are called component forces, and the single 
force which would produce the same effect is 
called the resultant. 

(e) When two component forces act in dif- 
ferent directions the resultant may be found by 
applying the principle of the parallelogram of 
forces — the lines (c) representing the compo- 
nents being made adjacent sides of a parallelo- 
gram, and the diagonal drawn from the in- 
cluded angle representing the resultant in 
direction and magnitude. 

(/) Conversely, a resultant motion may be 
resolved into its components by constructing a 
parallelogram upon it as the diagonal, either 
one of the components being known. 

Taking up again the illustration of the kite flying 
in a calm, let us construct a few diagrams to show 
graphically the forces at work upon the kite. Let 



LAWS OF FLIGHT, 47 

the heavy line AB represent the centre line of the 
kite from top to bottom^ and C the point where the 
string is attached, at which point we may suppose all 
the forces concentrate their action upon the plane of 
the kite. Obviously, as the flyer of the kite is run- 
ning in a horizontal direction, the line indicating the 
pull of the string is to be drawn horizontal. Let it 
be expressed by CD. The action of the air pressure 
being at right angles to the plane of the kite, we 
draw the line CE representing that force. But as 
this is a pressing force at the point 0, we may ex- 
press it as a pulling force on the other side of the 
kite by the line CF, equal to CE and in the oppo- 
site direction. Another force acting on the kite is its 
weight — the attraction of gravity acting directly 
downward, shown by CG. We have given, therefore, 
the three forces, CD, CF, and CG. We now wish to 
find the value of the pull on the kite-string, CD, in 
two other forces, one of which shall be a lifting force, 
acting directly upward, and the other a propelling 
force, acting in the direction in which we desire the 
kite to travel — supposing it to represent an aero- 
plane for the moment. 

We first construct a parallelogram on CF and CG, 
and draw the diagonal CH, which represents the re- 




PIRST 

Solution 




SOLUTiOtsf 




THIR.O 
Souu Ti ON 



LAWS OF FLIGHT. 49 

sultant of those two forces. We have then the two 
forces CD and CH acting on the point C, To avoid 
obscuring the diagram with too many lines, we draw 
a second figure, showing just these two forces acting 
on the point C. Upon these we construct a new par- 
allelogram, and draw the diagonal CI, expressing 
their resultant. Again drawing a new diagram, 
showing this single force CI acting upon the point 
C, we resolve that force into two components — one, 
CJ, vertically upward, representing the lift; the 
other, CK, horizontal, representing the travelling 
power. If the lines expressing these forces in the 
diagrams had been accurately drawn to scale, the 
measurement of the two components last foimd 
would give definite results in pounds ; but the weight 
of a kite is too small to be thus diagrammed, and 
only the principle was to be illustrated, to be used 
later in the discussion of the aeroplane. 

Nor is the problem as simple as the illustration 
of the kite suggests, for the air is compressible, and 
is moreover set in motion in the form of a current 
by a body passing through it at anything like the or- 
dinary speed of an aeroplane. This has caused the 
curving of the planes (from front to rear) of the 
flying machine, in contrast with the flat plane of the 



50 LAWS OF FLIGHT. 

kite. The reasoning is along this line : Suppose the 
main plane of an aeroplane six feet in depth (from 
front to rear) to be passing rapidly through the air^ 
inclined upward at a slight angle. By the time two 
feet of this depth has passed a certain point, the air 
at that point will have received a downward impulse 
or compression which will tend to make it flow in the 
direction of the angle of the plane. The second and 
third divisions in the depth, each of two feet, will 
therefore be moving with a partial vacuum beneath, 
the air having been drawn away by the first seg- 
ment. At the same time, the pressure of the aiT 
from above remains the same, and the result is that 
only the front edge of the plane is supported, while 
two-thirds of its depth is pushed down. This con- 
dition not only reduces the supporting surface to 
that of a plane two feet in depth, but, w^hat is much 
worse, releases a tipping force which tends to throw 
the plane over backward. 

In order that the second section of the plane may 
bear upon the air beneath it with a pressure equal 
to that of the first, it must be inclined downward at 
double the angle (with the horizon) of the first sec- 
tion ; this will in turn give to the air beneath it a 
new direction. The third section of the plane must 



LAWS OF FLIGHT. 51 

then be set at a still deejier angle to give it support. 
Connecting these several directions with a smoothly 
flowing line without angles, we get the curved line 
of section to which the main planes of aeroplanes are 
bent. 

With these principles in mind, it is in order to 
apply them to the understanding of how an aeroplane 
flies. Wilbur Wright, when asked what kept his 
machine up in the air — why it did not fall to the 
ground — replied : '^ It stays up because it doesn't 
have time to fall." Just what he meant by this may 
be illustrated by referring to the common sport of 
^^ skipping stones '' upon the surface of still water. 
A flat stone is selected, and it is thrown at a high 
speed so that the flat surface touches the water. It 
continues " skipping," again and again, until its 
speed is so reduced that the water wdiere it touches 
last has time to get out of the way, and the weight 
of the stone carries it to the bottom. On the same 
principle, a person skating swiftly across very thin 
ice will pass safely over if he goes so fast that the 
ice hasn't time to break and give way beneath his 
weight. This explains why an aeroplane must move 
swiftly to stay up in the air, w^hich has much less 
density than either water or ice. The minimum 



52 LAWS OF FLIGHT, 

speed at whicli an aeroplane can remain in the air 
depends largely npon its weight. The heavier it is, 
the faster it must go — just as a large man mnst 
move faster over thin ice than a small boy. At 
some aviation contests, prizes have been awarded for 
the slowest speed made by an aeroplane. So far, the 
slowest on record is that of 21.29 miles an hour, 
made by Captain Dickson at the Lanark meet, Scot- 
land, in August, 1910. As the usual rate of speed 
is about 46 miles an hour, that is slow for an aero- 
plane; and as Dickson's machine is much heavier 
than some others — the Curtiss machine, for instance 
— it is remarkably slow for that type of aeroplane. 

Just what is to be gained by offering a prize for 
slowest speed is difficult to conjecture. It is like 
offering a prize to a crowd of boys for the one who 
can skate slowest over thin ice. The minimum speed 
is the most dangerous with the aeroplane as with the 
skater. Other things being equal, the highest speed 
is the safest for an aeroplane. Even when his engine 
stops in mid-air, the aviator is compelled to keep up 
speed sufficient to prevent a fall by gliding swiftly 
downward until the very moment of landing. 

The air surface necessary to float a plane is spread 
out in one area in the monoplane, and divided into 



LAWS OF FLIGHT. 53 

two areas, one above the other and 6 to 9 feet apart, 
in the biplane ; if closer than this, the disturbance 
of the air by the passage of one plane affects the sup- 
porting power of the other. It has been suggested 
that better results in the line of carrying power 
would be secured by so placing the upper plane that 
its front edge is a little back of the rear edge of the 
lower plane, in order that it may enter air that is 
wholly free from any currents produced by the rush- 
ing of the lower plane. 

As yet, there is a difference of opinion among the 
principal aeroplane builders as to where the pro- 
peller should be placed. All of the monoplanes have 
it in front of the main plane. Most of the biplanes 
have it behind the main plane; some have it between 
the two planes. If it is in front, it works in undis- 
turbed air, but throws its wake upon the plane. If 
it is in the rear, the air is full of currents caused 
by the passage of the planes, but the planes have 
smooth air to glide into. As both types of machine 
are eminently successful, the question may not be so 
important as it seems to the disputants. 

The exact form of curve for the planes has not 
been decided upon. Experience has proven that of 
two aeroplanes having the same surface and run at 



54 LAWS OF FLIGHT 

the same speedy one may be able to lift twice as much 
as the other because of the better curvature of its 
planes. The action of the air when surfaces are 
driven through it is not fully understood. Indeed, 



Section of the "paradox" aeroplane. 

the form of plane shown in the accompanying figure 
is called the aeroplane paradox. If driven in either 
direction it leaves the air with a downward trend, 
and therefore exerts a proportional lifting power. 
If half of the plane is taken away, the other half 
is pressed downward. All of the lifting effect is in 
the curving of the top side. It seems desirable, there- 
fore, that such essential factors should be thoroughly 
worked out, understood, and applied. 



Chapter IV. 
FLYING MACHINES. 

Mythological — Leonardo da Vinci — Veranzio — John Wilkins — • 
Besnier — Marquis de Bacqueville — Paucton — Desforges — • 
Meerwein — Stentzel — Henson — Von Drieberg — Wenham — ■ 
Horatio Phillips — Sir Hiram Maxim — Lilienthal — Langley 
— Ader — Pilcher — Octave Chanute — Herring — Hargrave— 
The Wright brothers — Archdeacon — Santos-Dumont — Voi- 
sin — Bleriot. 

THE term Flying Machines is applied to all 
forms of aircraft which are heavier than air, 
and which lift and sustain themselves in the air by 
mechanical means. In this respect they are distin- 
guished from balloons, which are lifted and sus- 
tained in the air by the lighter-than-air gas which 
they contain. 

From the earliest times the desire to fly in the air 
has been one of the strong ambitions of the human 
race. Even the prehistoric mythology of the ancient 
Greeks reflected the idea in the story of Icarus, who 
flew so near to the sun that the heat melted the wax 
which fastened his wings to his body, and he fell 

into the sea. 

55 



56 FLYING MACHINES. 

Perhaps the first historical record in the line of 
mechanical flight worthy of attention exists in the 
remarkable sketches and plans for a flying mechan- 
ism left by Leonardo da Vinci at his death in 1519. 
He had followed the model of the flying bird as close- 
ly as possible^ although when the wings were out- 
spread they had an outline more like those of the bat. 
While extremely ingenious in the arrangement of the 
leverSj the power necessary to move them fast enough 
to lift the weight of a man was far beyond the mus- 
cular strength of any human being. 

It was a century later, in 1617, that Veranzio, a 
Venetian, proved his faith in his inventive ability 
by leaping from a tower in Venice with a crude, 
parachute-like contrivance. He alighted without in- 
jury. 

In 1684, an Englishman, John Wilkins, then 
bishop of Chester, built a machine for flying in 
which he installed a steam-engine. No record exists 
of its performance. 

In 1678, a French locksmith by the name of Bes- 
nier devised what seems now a very crude apparatus 
for making descending flights, or glides, from ele- 
vated points. It was, however, at that date consid- 
ered important enough to be described in the Journal 



FLYING MACHINES, 57 

of the Savants. It was a wholly unscientific com- 
bination of the '^ dog-paddle '' motion in swimming, 
with wing areas which collapsed on the upward mo- 
tion and spread out on the downward thrust. If 
it was ever put to a test it must have failed com- 
pletely. 

In 1742, the Marquis de Bacqueville constructed 
an apparatus which some consider to have been 
based on Besnier's idea — which seems rather doubt- 
ful. He fastened the surfaces of his aeroplane di- 
rectly to his arms and legs, and succeeded in mak- 
ing a long glide from the window of his mansion 
across the garden of the Tuileries, alighting upon 
a washerwoman's bench in the Seine without in- 

Paucton, the mathematician, is credited with the 
suggestion of a flying machine with two screw pro- 
pellers, which he called ^^ pterophores '' — a horizontal 
one to raise the machine into the air, and an upright 
one to propel it. These were to be driven by hand. 
With such hopelessly inadequate power it is not sur- 
prising that nothing came of it, yet the plan was a 
foreshadowing of the machine which has in these 
days achieved success. 

The Abbe Desforges gained a place in the annals 



58 



FLYING MACHINES. 



of aeronautics by inventing a flying machine of 
whicli only the name '^ Orthoptere " remains. 

About 1780^ Karl Friedrich Meerwein, an archi- 
tect;, and the Inspector of Public Buildings for 
Baden^ Germany, made many scientific calculations 





Meerwein's Flying Machine. A, shows the position of the man in the vving?, 
their comparative size, and the operating levers; B, position when in flight. 



and experiments on the size of wing surface needed 
to support a man in the air. He used the wild duck 
as a standard, and figured that a surface of 126 
square feet would sustain a man in the air. This 
agrees with the later calculations of such experi- 
menters as Lilienthal and Langley. Other of Meer- 



FLYING MACHINES. 59 

wein's conclusions are decidedly ludicrous. He held 
that the build of a man favors a horizontal position 
in flying, as his nostrils open in a direction which 
Avould be away from the wind, and so respiration 
would not be interfered with ! Some of his reason- 
ing is unaccountably astray ; as, for instance, his ar- 
gument that because the man hangs in the wings the 
weisiht of the latter need not be considered. It is 




Plan of Degen's apparatus. 

almost needless to say that his practical trials were 
a total failure. 

The next prominent step forward toward me- 
chanical flight was made by the Australian watch- 
maker Degen, who balanced his wing surfaces with 
a small gas balloon. His first efforts to fly not being 
successful, he abandoned his invention and took to 
ballooning. 

Stentzel, an engineer of Hamburg, came next with 



60 



FLYING MACHINES, 



a machine in the form of a gigantic butterfly. From 
tip to tip of its wings it measured 20 feet, and their 
depth fore and aft was 5^ feet. The ribs of the 
wings were of steel and the web of ,§ilk, and they 




Stentzel's machine. 

were slightly concave on the lower side. The rud- 
der-tail was of two intersecting planes, one vertical 
and the other horizontal. It was operated by a car- 
bonic-acid motor, and made 84 flaps of the wings 
per minute. The rush of air it produced was so 



FLYING MACHINES. 61 

great that any one standing near it would be almost 
swept off his feet. It did not reach a stage beyond 
the model, for it was able to lift only 75 lbs. 

In 1843, the English inventor Henson built what 
is admitted to be the first aeroplane driven by motive 
power. It was 100 feet in breadth (sprea(^ and 30 
feet long, and covered with silk. The front edge was 
turned slightly upward. It had a rudder shaped like 
the tail of a bird. It was driven by two propellers 
run by a 20-horse-power engine. Henson succeeded 
only in flying on a down grade, doubtless because of 
the upward bend of the front of his plane. Later 
investigations have proven that the upper surface of 
the aeroplane must be convex to gain the lifting ef- 
fect. This is one of the paradoxes of flying planes 
which no one has been able to explain. 

In 1845, Von Drieberg, in Germany, revived the 
sixteenth-century ideas of flying, with the quite orig- 
inal argument that since the legs of man were better 
developed muscularly than his arms, flying should be 
done with the legs. He built a machine on this plan, 
but no successful flights are recorded. 

In 1868, an experimenter by the name of Wen- 
ham added to the increasing sum of aeronautical 
knowledge by discovering that the lifting power of 



62 



FLYING MACHINES, 



a large supporting surface may be as well secured 
by a number of small surfaces placed one above an- 
other. Following up these experiments^ he built a 




Von Drieberg's machine; view from above. 

flying machine with a series of six supporting planes 
made of linen fabric. As he depended upon muscu- 
lar effort to work his propellers, he did not succeed 




Wenham's arrangement of many narrow surfaces in six tiers, or decks, a, a, 
rigid framework; h, b, levers working flapping wings; e, e, braces. The 
operator is lying prone. 



in flying, but he gained information which has been 
valuable to later inventors. 

The history of flying machines cannot be written 



FLYING MACHINES. 



63 



Avithout deferential mention of Horatio Phillips of 
England. The machine that he made in 1862 re- 
sembled a large Venetian blind, 9 feet high and over 
21 feet long. It ^vas mounted on a carriage which 
travelled on a circular track 600 feet long, and it was 
driven by a small steam engine turning a/ propeller. 




Phillips's Flying Machine — built of narrow slats like a Venetian blind. 

It lifted imusually heavy loads, although not large 
enough to carry a man. It seems to open the way 
for experiments with an entirely new arrangement 
of sustaining surfaces — one that has never since 
been investigated. Phillips's records cover a series 
of most valuable experiments. Perhaps his most im- 
portant work was in the determination of the most 



64 FLYING MACHINES. 

advantageous form for the surfaces of aeroplanes, 
and his researches into the correct proportion of mo- 
tive power to the area of such surfaces. Much of 
his results have not yet been put to practical use by 
designers of flying machines. 

The year 1888 was marked by the construction by 
Sir Hiram Maxim of his great aeroplane which 
weighed three and one-half tons, and is said to have 
cost over $100,000. The area of the planes was 
3,875 square feet, and it was propelled by a steam 
engine in which the fuel used was vaporized naph- 
tha in a burner having 7,500 jets, under a boiler of 
small copper water tubes. With a steam pressure of 
320 lbs. per square inch^ the two compound engines 
each developed 180 horse-power, and each turned a 
two-bladed propeller 17^ feet in diameter. The ma- 
chine was used only in making tests, being prevented 
from rising in the air by a restraining track. The 
thrust developed on trial was 2,164 lbs., and the lift- 
ing power was shown to have been in excess of 10,- 
000 lbs. The restraining track was torn to pieces, and 
the machine injured by the fragments. The dyna- 
mometer record proved that a dead weight of 4J 
tons, in addition to the weight of the machine and 
the crew of 4 men, could have been lifted. The 



PLYING MACHINES, 65 

stability^ speed, and steering control were not tested. 
Sir Hiram Maxim made unnmnbered experiments 




View of a part of Maxim's aeroplane, showing one of the immense propellers. 
At the top is a part of the upper plane. 



with models, gaining information which has been in- 
valuable in the development of the aeroplane. 

The experiments of Otto Lilienthal in gliding 



66 



FLYING MACHINES. 



with a winged structure were being conducted at this 
period. He held that success in flying must be 
founded upon proficiency in the art of balancing the 
apparatus in the air. He made innumerable glides 
from heights which he continually increased until he 




Lilienthal in his biplane glider. 

was travelling distances of nearly one-fourth of a 
mile from an elevation of 100 feet. He had reached 
the point where he was ready to install motive power 
to drive his glider when he met with a fatal accident. 
Besides the inspiration of his daring personal ex- 
periments in the air, he left a most valuable series 



FLYING MACHINES. 67 

of records and calculations, which have been of the 
greatest aid to other inventors in the line of arti- 
ficial flight. 

In 1896, Professor Langley, director of the Smith- 
sonian Institution at Washington, made a test of a 
model flying machine which was the result of years 
of experimenting. It had a span of 15 feet, and a 
length of 8^ feet without the extended rudder. 
There were 4 sails or planes, 2 on each side, 30 
inches in width (fore-and-aft measurement). Two 
propellers revolving in opposite directions were driv- 
en by a steam engine. The diameter of the propel- 
lers was 3 feet, and the steam pressure 150 lbs. 
per square inch. The weight of the machine was 
28 lbs. It is said to have made a distance of 1 
mile in 1 minute 45 seconds. As Professor Lang- 
ley's experiments were conducted in strict secrecy, 
no authoritative figures are in existence. Later a 
larger machine was built, which was intended to 
carry a man. It had a spread of 46 feet, and was 
35 feet in length. It was four years in building, 
and cost about $50,000. In the first attempt to 
launch it^ from the roof of a house-boat, it plunged 
into the Potomac River. The explanation given was 
that the launching apparatus was defective. This 



6S FLYING MACHINES, 

was remediedj and a second trial made^ bnt the same 
result followed. It was never tried again. This 
machine was really a double, or tandem, monoplane. 
The framework was built of steel tubing almost as 
thin as writing paper. Every rib and pulley was 
hollowed out to reduce the weight. The total weight 
of the engine and machine was 800 lbs., and the 
supporting surface of the wings was 1,040 square 
feet. The aeroplanes now in use average from 2 to 
4 lbs. weight to the square foot of sustaining surface. 

About the same time the French electrician Ader, 
after years of experimenting, with the financial aid 
of the French Government, made some secret trials 
of his machine, which had taken five years to build. 
It had two bat-like wings spreading 54 feet, and was 
propelled by two screws driven by a 4-cylinder 
steam engine which has been described as a marvel 
of lightness. The inventor claimed that he was able 
to rise to a height of 60 feet, and that he made flights 
of several hundred yards. The official tests, how- 
ever, were unsatisfactory, and nothing further was 
done by either the inventor or the government to con- 
tinue the experiments. The report was that in every 
trial the machines had been wrecked. 

The experiments of Lilienthal had excited an in- 



FLYING MACHINES. 



69 



terest in his ideas which his untimely death did not 
abate. Among others, a young English marine en- 
gineer, Percy S. Pilcher, took up the problem of 
gliding flight, and by the device of using the power 
exerted by running boys (with a five-fold multiplying 
gear) he secured speed enough to float his glider hori- 




Plan of Chanute's movable-wing glider. 



zontally in the air for some distance. He then built 
an engine which he purposed to install as motive 
power, but before this was done he was killed by a 
fall from his machine while in the air. 

Before the death of Lilienthal his efforts had at- 
tracted the attention of Octave Chanute, a distin- 



70 



FLYING MACHINES, 



guished civil engineer of Chicago, who, believing 
that the real problem of the glider was the main- 
tenance of eqnilibrinm in the air, instituted a series 
of experiments along that line. Lilienthal had pre- 
served his equilibrium by moving his body about as 
he hung suspended under the wings of his machine. 




Chanute's two-deck glider. 



Chanute proposed to accomplish the same end by 
moving the wangs automatically. His attempts were 
partially successful. He constructed several types of 
gliders, one of these with two decks exactly in the 
form of the present biplane. Others had three or 
more decks. Upward of seven hundred glides were 
made with Chanute's machines by himself and as- 
sistants, without a single accident. It is of interest 
to note that a month before the fatal accident to 



FLYING MACHINES, 71 

Lilienthalj Chanute had condemned that form of 
glider as unsafe. 

In 1897, A. M. Herring, who had been one of 
the foremost assistants of Octave Chanute, built a 
double-deck (biplane) machine and equipped it with 
a gasoline motor between the planes. The engine 
failed to produce sufficient power, and an engine 
operated by compressed air was tried, but without 
the desired success. 

In 1898, Lawrence Hargrave of Sydney, New 
South Wales, came into prominence as the inventor 
of the cellular or box kite. Following the researches 
of Chanute, he made a series of experiments upon 
the path of air currents under variously curved 
surfaces, and constructed some kites which, under 
certain conditions, would advance against a wind be- 
lieved to be absolutely horizontal. From these re- 
sults Hargrave w^as led to assert that '' soaring 
sails " might be used to furnish propulsion, not only 
for flying machines, but also for ships on the ocean 
sailing against the wind. The principles involved 
remain in obscurity. 

During the years 1900 to 1903, the brothers 
Wright, of Dayton, Ohio, had been experimenting 
with gliders among the sand dunes of Kitty Hawk, 



72 



FLYING MACHINES. 



ITorth Carolina, a small hamlet on the Atlantic 
Coast. They had gone there because the Government 
meteorological department had informed them that at 
Kitty Hawk the winds blew more steadily than at 
any other locality in the United States. Toward the 
end of the summer of 1903, they decided that the 




Wilbur Wright gliding at Kitty Hawk, N. C, in 1903. 

time was ripe for the installation of motive power, 
and on December 17, 1903, they made their first 
four flights under power, the longest being 853 feet 
in 59 seconds — against a wind blowing nearly 20 
miles an hour, and from a starting point on level 
ground. 

During 1904 over one hundred flights were made, 



FLYING MACHINES, 73 

and changes in construction necessary to sail in cir- 
cles were devised. In 1905, the Wrights kept on 
secretly with their practice and development of their 
machine, first one and then the other making the 
flights until both were equally proficient. In the 
latter part of September and early part of October, 
1905, occurred a series of flights which the Wrights 
allowed to become known to the public. At a meet- 
ing of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, 
held in London on December 15, 1905, a letter from 
Orville Wright to one of the members was read. 
It was dated ITovember 17, 1905, and an excerpt 
from it is as follows : 

" During the month of September we gradually 
improved in our practice, and on the 26th made a 
flight of a little over 11 miles. On the 30th we in- 
creased this to 12|^th miles; on October 3, to 15^ 
miles ; on October 4, to 20f miles, and on October 5, 
to 24J miles. All these flights were made at about 
38 miles an hour, the flight of October 5 occupying 
30 minutes 3 seconds. Landings were caused by the 
exhaustion of the supply of fuel in the flights of 
September 26 and 30, and October 8, and in those 
of October 3 and 4 by the heating of the bearings 
in the transmission, of which the oil cups had been 



74 FLYING MACHINES. 

omitted. But before the flight on October 5, oil cups 
had been fitted to all the bearings, and the small 
gasoline can had been replaced with one that carried 
enough fuel for an hour's flight. Unfortunately, we 




A Wright machine in flight. 

neglected to refill the reservoir just before starting, 
and as a result the flight was limited to 38 min- 
utes. ... 

^^ The machine passed through all of these flights 
without the slightest damage. In each of these 



FLYING MACHINES. 



75 



flights we returned frequently to the starting point, 
passing high over the heads of the spectators." 

These statements were received with incredulity 
in many parts of Europe, the more so as the 
Wrights refused to permit an examination of their 
machine, fearing that the details of construction 




The Archdeacon machine on the Seine. 



might become known before their patents were 
secured. 

During the summer of 1905, Captain Ferber and 
Ernest Archdeacon of Paris had made experiments 
with gliders. One of the Archdeacon machines 
was towed by an automobile, having a bag of 
sand to occupy the place of the pilot. It rose 
satisfactorily in the air, but the tail became dis- 



76 FLYING MACHINES. 

arranged, and it fell and was damaged. It was re- 
built and tried upon the waters of the Seine, being 
towed by a fast motor-boat at a speed of 25 miles 
an hour. The machine rose about 50 feet into the 
air and sailed for about 500 feet. 

Archdeacon gathered a company of young men 
about him who speedily became imbued with his en- 
thusiasm. Among them were Gabriel Voisin, Louis 
Bleriot, and Leon Delagrange. The two former, 
working together, built and flew several gliders, and 
when Santos-Dumont made his historic flight of 720 
feet with his multiple-cell machine on November 13, 
1906 (the first flight made in Europe), they were 
spurred to new endeavors. 

Within a few months Voisin had finished his 
first biplane, and Delagrange made his initial 
flight with it — a mere hop of 30 feet — on March 
16, 1907. 

Bleriot, however, had his own ideas, and on Au- 
gust 6, 1907, he flew for 470 feet in a monoplane 
machine of the tandem type. He succeeded in steer- 
ing his machine in a curved course, a feat which had 
not previously been accomplished in Europe. 

In October of the same year, Henri Farman, then 
a well-known automobile driver, flew the second 



FLYING MACHINES. 77 

Voisin biplane in a half circle of 253 feet— a no- 
table achievement at that date. 

But Santos-Dumont had been pushing forward 
several different types of machines^ and in November 
he flew first a biplane 500 feet, and a few days later 
a monoplane 400 feet. 

At this point in our story the past seems to give 
place to the present. The period of early develop- 
ment was over, and the year 1908 saw the first of 
those remarkable exploits which are recorded in the 
chapter near the end of this work entitled, ^^ Chron- 
icle of Aviation Achievements.'' 

It is interesting to note that the machines then 
brought out are those of to-day. Practically, it may 
be said that there has been no material change from 
the original types. More powerful engines have 
been put in them, and the frames strengthened in 
proportion, but the Voisin, the Bleriot, and the 
Wright types remain as they v/ere at first. Other 
and later forms are largely modifications and com- 
binations of their peculiar features. 



Chapter V. 

FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 

Successful types of aeroplanes — Distinguishing features — The 
Wright biplane — Construction — New type — Five-passenger 
machine — The Voisin biplane — New racing type — The Cur- 
tiss biplane — The Cody biplane — The Sommer biplane — • 
The Baldwin biplane — New stabilizing plane — The Bad- 
deck No. 2 — Self-sustaining radiator — The Herring biplane 
—Stabilizing fins. 

IN^ the many contests for prizes and records, two 
types of flying machines have won distinctive 
places for themselves — the biplane and the mono- 
plane. The appearance of other forms has been 
sporadic, and they have speedily disappeared with- 
out accomplishing anything which had not been bet- 
ter done by the two classes named. 

This fact, however, should not be construed as 
proving the futility of all other forms, nor that the 
ideal flying machine must be of one of these two 
prominent types. It is to be remembered that rec- 
ord-making and record-breaking is the most serious 
business in which any machines have so far been 
78 




2 



80 FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 

engaged; and this^ surely, is not the field of useful- 
ness to humanity which the ships of the air may be 
expected ultimately to occupy. It may yet be proved 
that, successful as these machines have been in what 
they have attempted, they are but transition forms 
leading up to the perfect airship of the future. 

The distinguishing feature of the biplane is not 
alone that it has two main planes, but that they are 
placed one above the other. The double (or tandem) 
monoplane also has two main planes, but they are on 
the same level, one in the rear of the other. 

A review of the notable biplanes of the day must 
begin with the Wright machine, which was not only 
the first with which flights were made, but also the 
inspiration and perhaps the pattern of the whole 
succeeding fleet. 

THE WRIGHT BIPLANE. 

The Wright biplane is a structure composed of 
two main surfaces, each 40 feet long and 6 feet 6 
inches wide, set one above the other, parallel, and 
6 feet apart. The planes are held rigidly at this dis- 
tance by struts of wood, and the whole structure is 
trussed with diagonal wire ties. It is claimed by 
the Wrights that these dimensions have been proven 



82 FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 

by their experiments to give the maxiiinuii lift with 
the minimum weight. 

The combination of planes is mounted on two 
rigid skids, or runners (similar to the runners of a 
sleigh), which are extended forward and upward to 
form a support for a pair of smaller planes in par- 
allel, used as the elevator (for directing the course 
of the aeroplane upward or downward). It has been 
claimed by the Wrights that a rigid skid under- 
structure takes up the shock of landing, and checks 
the momentum at that moment, better than any other 
device. But it necessitated a separate starting appa- 
ratus, and while the starting impulse thus received 
enabled the Wrights to use an engine of less power 
(to keep the machine going when once started), and 
therefore of less dead weight, it proved a handicap 
to their machines in contests wdiere they were met by 
competing machines which started directly with their 
own power. A later model of the Wright biplane 
is provided with a wheeled running gear, and an 
engine of sufficient power to raise it in the air after 
a short run on the wheels. 

Two propellers are used, run by one motor. They 
are built of wood, are of the two-bladed type, and 
are of comparatively large diameter — 8 feet. They 



FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 83 

revolve in opposite directions at a speed of 450 revo- 
lutions per minute, being geared down by chain 
drive from the engine speed of 1,500 revolutions per 
minute. 

The large elevator planes in front have been a dis- 
tinctive feature of the Wright machine. They have 
a combined area of 80 square feet, adding that much 
more lifting surface to the planes in ascending, for 
then the under side of their surfaces is exposed to 
the wind. If the same surfaces were in the rear 
of the main planes their top sides would have to be 
turned to the wind when ascending, and a depressing 
instead of a lifting effect would result. 

To the rear of the main planes is a rudder com- 
posed of two parallel vertical surfaces for steering 
to right or left. 

The feature essential to the Wright biplane, upon 
which the letters patent were granted, is the flexible 
construction of the tips of the main planes, in virtue 
of which they may be warped up or down to restore 
disturbed equilibrium, or when a turn is to be made. 
This warping of the planes changes the angle of in- 
cidence for the part of the plane which is bent. 
(The angle of incidence is that which the plane 
makes with the line in which it is moving. The 



84 



FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 



bending downward of the rear edge would enlarge the 
angle of incidence^ in that way increasing the com- 
pression of the air beneath, and lifting that end of 
the plane.) The wing-warping controls are actu- 
ated by the lever at the right hand of the pilot, which 
also turns the rudder at the rear — that which steers 
the machine to right or to left. The lever at the left 




Sketch showing relative positions of planes and of the operator in the Wright 
machine: A, A, the main planes ; B, B, the elevator planes. The motor 
is placed beside the operator. 



hand of the pilot moves the elevating planes at the 
front of the machine. 

The motor has 4 cylinders, and develops 25 to 
30 horse-power, giving the machine a speed of 39 
miles per hour. 

A newer model of the Wright machine is built 
without the large elevating planes in front, a single 
elevating plane being placed just back of the rear 
rudder. This arrangement cuts out the former lift- 
ing effect described above, and substitutes the de- 



86 FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 

pressing effect due to exposing the top of a surface 
to the wind. 

The smallest of the Wright machines, popularly 
called the " Baby Wright/' is built upon this plan, 
and has proven to be the fastest of all the Wright 
series. 

THE VOISIlSr BIPLANE. 

While the Wrights were busily engaged in devel- 
oping their biplane in America, a group of enthu- 
siasts in France were experimenting with gliders of 
various types, towing them with high speed auto- 
mobiles along the roads, or with swift motor-boats 
upon the Seine. As an outcome of these experi- 
ments, in which they bore an active part, the Voisin 
brothers began building the biplanes which have 
made them famous. 

As compared with the Wright machine, the Voisin 
aeroplane is of much heavier construction. It 
weighs 1,100 pounds. The main planes have a lat- 
eral spread of 37 feet 9 inches, and a breadth of 7 
feet, giving a combined area of 540 square feet, the 
same as that of the Wright machine. The lower 
main plane is divided at the centre to allow the in- 
troduction of a trussed girder framework which car- 



FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 



87 



ries the motor and propeller, the pilot's seat, the 
controlling mechanism, and the running gear below ; 
and it is extended forward to support the elevator. 
This is much lower than in the Wright machine, 
being nearly on the level of the lower plane. It is 
a single surface, divided at the centre, half being 



Rudder 




Diagram shomng details of construction of the Voisin biplane. C, C, the 
curtains forming the stabilizing cells. 



placed on each side of the girder. It has a com- 
bined area of 42 square feet, about half of that of 
the Wright elevator, and it is only 4 feet from the 
front edge of the main planes, instead of 10 feet as 
in the Wright machine. A framework nearly square 
in section, and about 25 feet long, extends to the 
rear, and supports a cellular, or box-like, tail, which 



88 FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 

forms a case in which is the rudder surface for steer- 
ing to right or to left. 

A distinctive feature of the Voisin biplane is the 
use of four vertical planes^ or curtains, between the 
two main planes, forming two nearly square " cells " 
at the ends of the planes. 

At the rear of the main planes, in the centre, is 
the single propeller. It is made of steel, two-bladed, 



Diagram showing the simplicity of control of the Voisin machine, all opera- 
tions being performed by the wheel and its sliding axis. 

and is 8 feet 6 inches in diameter. It is coupled 
directly to the shaft of the motor, making with it 
1,200 revolutions per minute. The motor is of the 
V type, developing 50 horse-power, and giving a 
speed of 37 miles per hour. 

The controls are all actuated by a rod sliding back 
and forth horizontally in front of the pilot's seat, 
having a wheel at the end. The elevator is fastened 
to the rod by a crank lever, and is tilted up or down 
as the rod is pushed forward or pulled back. Turn- 



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90 FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 

ing the wheel from side to side moves the rudder in 
the rear. There are no devices for controlling the 
equilibrium. This is supposed to be maintained au- 
tomatically by the fixed vertical curtains. 

The machine is mounted on two wheels forward, 
and two smaller Avheels under the tail. 

This description applies to the standard Voisin 
biplane, which has been in much favor with many 
of the best known aviators. Recently the Voisins 
have brought out a new type in which the propel- 
ler has been placed in front of the planes, exert- 
ing a pulling force upon the machine, instead of 
pushing it as in the earlier type. The elevating 
plane has been removed to the rear, and combined 
with the rudder. 

A racing type also has been produced, in which 
the vertical curtains have been removed and a par- 
allel pair of long, narrow ailerons introduced between 
the main planes on both sides of the centre. This 
machine, it is claimed, has made better than 60 miles 
per hour. 

The first Voisin biplane Avas built for Delagrange, 
and was flown by him with success. 



FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE, 91 

THE FAEMAX BIPLAIS'E. 

The second biplane built by the Voisins went into 
the hands of Henri Farman, who made many flights 
with it. Xot being quite satisfied with the machine, 
and having an inventive mind^ he was soon building 
a biplane after his own designs, and the Farman bi- 
plane is now one of the foremost in favor among 
both professional and amateur aviators. 

It is decidedly smaller in area of surface than the 
Wright and Voisin machines, having but 430 square 
feet in the two supporting planes. It has a spread 
of 33 feet^ and the planes are 7 feet wide, and set 6 
feet apart. In the Farman machine the vertical cur- 
tains of the Voisin have been dispensed with. The 
forward elevator is there, but raised nearly to the 
level of the upper plane, and placed 9 feet from the 
front edge of the main planes. To control the equi- 
librium, the two back corners of each plane are cut 
and hinged so that they hang vertically when not in 
flight. When in motion these flaps or ailerons 
stream out freely in the wind, assuming such posi- 
tion as the speed of the passing air gives them. They 
are pulled down by the pilot at one end or the other, 
as may be necessary to restore equilibrium, acting 



FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 



93 



in very nnicli the same manner as the warping tips 
of the Wright machine. A pair of tail planes are set 
in parallel on a framework about 20 feet in the rear 
of the main planes, and a double rudder surface be- 
hind them. Another model has hinged ailerons on 
these tail planes, and a single rudder surface set up- 



Eieva^ 



ed OecK 




Balancing 
plane 



Rudders 



Diagram of the Farman biplane. A later type has the hinged ailerons also 
on the tail planes 



right between them. These tail ailerons are moved 
in conjunction with those of the main planes. 

The motor has 4 cylinders, and turns a propeller 
made of wood^ 8 feet 6 inches in diameter, at a speed 
of 1,300 revolutions per minute — nearly three times 
as fast as the speed of the Wright propellers, which 
are about the same size. The propeller is placed just 
under the rear edge of the upper main plane, the 



94 



FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 



lower one being cut away to make room for the re- 
volving blades. The motor develops 45 to 50 horse- 
power, and drives the machine at a speed of 41 mile? 
per hour. 

The " racing Farman '.' is slightly different, hav- 
ing the hinged ailerons only on one of the main 
planes. The reason for this is obvious. Every de- 
pression of tlie ailerons acts as a drag on the air 



1x 





^A^ 



iA 




Sketch of Farman machine, showing position of operator. A, A, main planes; 
B, elevator; C, motor; P, tail planes. 

flowing under tlie planes, increasing the lift at the 
expense of the speed. 

The wdiole structure is mounted upon skids with 
wheels attached by a flexible connection. In case 
of a severe jar, the wheels are pushed up against the 
springs until the skids come into play. 

The elevator and the wing naps are controlled by 
a lever at the right hand of the pilot. This lever 
moves on a universal joint, the side-to-side move- 
ment working the flaps, and the forward-and-back 
uiotiou the elevator. Steering to right or left is 
done with a bar operated by the feet. 



96 FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 

Farmaii has himself made many records with 
his machine^ and so have others. With a slightly 
larger and heavier machine than the one described, 
Farman carried two passengers a distance of 35 
miles in one hour. 

THE CURTISS BIPLANE. 

This American rival of the AVright biplane is the 
lightest machine of this type so far constructed. The 
main planes are but 29 feet in spread, and 4 feet 6 
inches in width^ and are set not quite 5 feet apart. 
The combined area of the two planes is 250 square 
feet. The main planes are placed midway of the 
length of the fore-and-aft structure, which is nearly 
30 feet. At the forward end is placed the elevator, 
and at the rear end is the tail — one small plane sur- 
face — and the vertical rudder surface in two parts, 
one above and the other below the tail plane. Equi- 
librium is controlled by changing the slant of two 
small balancing planes which are placed midway be- 
tween the main planes at the outer ends, and in line 
with the front edges. These balancing planes are 
moved by a lever standing upright behind the pilot, 
having two arms at its upper end which turn for- 
ward so as to embrace his shoulders. The lever is 



98 FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 

moved to right or to left by the swaying of the pilot's 
body. 

The motor is raised to a position where the shaft 
of the propeller is midway between the levels of the 
main planes, and within the line of the rear edges, 
so that they have to be cut away to allow the passing 
of the blades. The motor is of the V type, with 8 
cylinders. It is 30 horse-power and makes 1,200 
revolutions per minute. The propeller is of steel, 
two-bladed, 6 feet in diameter, and revolves at the 
same speed as the shaft on which it is mounted. 
The high position of the engine permits a low run- 
ning gear. There are two wheels under the rear 
edges of the main planes, and another is placed half- 
way between the main planes and the forward rud- 
der, or elevator. A brake, operated by the pilot's 
foot, acts upon this forward wheel to check the speed 
at the moment of landing. 

Another type of Curtiss machine has the ailerons 
set in the rear of the main planes, instead of be- 
tween them. 

The Curtiss is the fastest of the biplanes, being 
excelled in speed only by some of the monoplanes. 
It has a record of 51 miles per hour. 



FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE, 99 

THE CODY BIPLANE. 

The Cody biplane has the distinction of being 
the first successful British aeroplane. It was de- 
signed and flown by Captain S. F. Cody, at one time 
an American, but for some years an officer in the 
British army. 

It is the largest and heaviest of all the biplanes, 
weighing about 1,800 lbs., more than three times 
the weight of the Curtiss machine. Its main planes 
are 52 feet in lateral spread, and Y feet 6 inches in 
width, and are set 9 feet apart. The combined area 
of these sustaining surfaces is 770 square feet. 
The upper plane is arched, so that the ends of the 
main planes are slightly closer together than at the 
centre. 

The elevator is in two parts placed end to end, 
about 12 feet in front of the main planes. They 
have a combined area of 150 square feet. Between 
them and above them is a small rudder for steering 
to right or left in conjunction with the large rudder 
at the rear of the machine. The latter has an area 
of 40 square feet. 

There are two small balancing planes, set one at 
each end of the main planes, their centres on the 




rl3 

Eh 



FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE 101 

rear corner struts^ so that they project beyond the 
tips of the planes and behind their rear lines. 

The biplane is controlled by a lever rod haying 
a wheel at the end. Turning the wheel moves the 
rudders ; pushing or pulling the wheel works the 
elevator; moving the wheel from side to side moves 
the balancing planes. 

There are two propellers, set one on each side of 
the engine, and w^ell forward between the main 
jDlanes. They are of wood, of the two-bladed type, 
7 feet in diameter. They are geared down to make 
600 revolutions per minute. The motor has 8 cylin- 
ders and develops 80 horse-power at 1,200 revolu- 
tions per minute. 

The machine is mounted on a wheeled running 
gear, two wheels under the front edge of the main 
planes and one a short distance forward in the centre. 
There is also a small wheel at each extreme end of 
the lower main plane. 

The Cody biplane has frequently carried a pas- 
senger, besides the pilot, and is credited with a 
speed of 38 miles per hour. 

The first aeroplane flights ever made in England 
were by Captain Cody on this biplane, January 2, 
1909. 



102 FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 

THE SOMMER BIPLANE. 

The Sommer biplane is closely similar to the Far- 
man machine, but has the hinged ailerons only on 
the upper plane. Another difference is that the tail 
has but one surface, and the rudder is hung beneath 
it. Its dimensions are : — Spread of main planes, 
34 feet; depth (fore-and-aft), 6 feet 8 inches; they 
are set 6 feet apart. The area of the main planes 
is 456 square feet; area of tail, 67 square feet; area 
of rudder, 9 square feet. It is driven by a 50-horse- 
power Gnome motor, turning an 8-foot, two-bladed 
propeller. 

M. Sommer has flown with three passengers, a 
total weight pf 536 lbs., besides the weight of the 
machine. 

THE BALDWIN BIPLANE. 

The Baldwin biplane, designed by Captain Thom- 
as S. Baldwin, the distinguished balloonist, resem- 
bles the Farman type in some features, and the Cur- 
tiss in others. It has the Curtiss type of ailerons, set 
between the wings, but extending beyond them lat- 
erally. The elevator is a single surface placed in 
front of the machine, and the tail is of the biplane 
type with the rudder between. The spread of the 



FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 



103 



main planes is 31 feet 3 inches, and their depth 4 
feet 6 inches. A balancing plane of 9 square feet 
is set upright (like a fin) above the upper main 
plane, on a swivel. This is worked by a fork fitting 





The Baldwin biplane, showing balancing plane above upper main plane. 



on the shoulders of the pilot, and is designed to re- 
store equilibrium by its swinging into head-resistance 
on one side or the other as may be necessary. 

The motive power is a 4-cylinder Ourtiss motor, 
which turns a propeller 7 feet 6 inches in diameter, 



104 FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 

set just witliin the rear line of the main planes, winch 
are cut aAvay to clear the propeller blades. 

THE BADDECK BIPLANE. 

The newest biplane of the Aerial Experiment As- 
sociation follows in general contour its successful 
precursor, the " Silver Dart/' with which J. A. D. Mc- 
Curdy made many records. The '' Baddeck No. 2 " 
is of the biplane type, and both the planes are arched 
toward each other. They have a spread of 40 feet, 
and are 7 feet in depth at the centre, rounding to 5 
feet at the ends, where the wing tips, 5 feet by 5 
feet, are hinged. The elevator is also of the biplane 
type, two surfaces each 12 feet long and 28 inches 
wide, set 30 inches apart. This is mounted 15 feet 
in front of the main planes. The tail is mounted 
11 feet in the rear of the main planes, and is the 
same size and of the same form as the elevator. 

The controls are operated by the same devices as 
in the Curtiss machine. The propeller is 7 feet 8 
inches in diameter, and is turned by a six-cylinder 
automobile engine of 40 horse-power running at 
1,400 revolutions per minute. The propeller is 
geared down to run at 850 revolutions per minute. 



FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE 



105 



The motor is placed low down on the lower plane, 
but the propeller shaft is raised to a position as 
nearly as possible that of the centre of resistance of 
the machine. The speed attained is 40 miles per/ 
hour. 

A unique feature of the mechanism is the radia- 




The McCurdy biplane, "Baddeck No. 2." 



tor, which is built of 30 flattened tubes 7 feet 6 
inches long^ and 3 inches wide, and very thin. They 
are curved from front to rear like the main planes, 
and give sufficient lift to sustain their own weight 



106 FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 

and that of the water carried for cooling the cylin- 
ders. The running gear is of three wheels placed 
as in the Curtiss machine. The " Baddeck No. 2 '' 
has made many satisfactory flights with one passen- 
ger besides the pilot. 

THE HERRING BIPLANE. 

At the Boston Aircraft Exhibition in February^ 
1910, the Herring biplane attracted much attention, 
not only because of its superiority of mechanical 
finish, but also on account of its six triangular sta- 
bilizing fins set upright on the upper plane. Sub- 
sequent trials proved that this machine was quite 
out of the ordinary in action. It rose into the air 
after a run of but 85 feet, and at a speed of only 
22 miles per hour, and made a 40-degree turn at a 
tipping angle of 20 degrees. As measured by the 
inventor, the machine rose in the air with the pilot 
(weighing 190 lbs.), with a thrust of 140 lbs., and 
required only a thrust of from 80 to 85 lbs. to keep 
it flying. 

The spread of the planes is 28 feet, and they are 
4 f^et in depth, with a total supporting surface of 
220 feet. A 25 horse-power Curtiss motor turns a 
4-bladed propeller of 6 feet diameter and 5-foot pitch 



108 FLYING MACHINES: THE BIPLANE. 

(designed by Mr. Herring) at the rate of 1^200 rev- 
olutions per minute. 

The elevator consists of a pair of parallel surfaces 
set upon hollow poles 12 feet in front of the main 
planes. The tail is a single surface. 

The stabilizing fins act in this manner: when the 
machine tips to one side, it has a tendency to slide 
down an incline of air toward the ground. The fins 
offer resistance to this sliding, retarding the upper 
plane, while the lower plane slides on and swings as 
a pendulum into equilibrium again. 

THE BREGUET BIPLANE 

The Breguet biplane is conspicuous in having a 
biplane tail of so large an area as to merit for the 
machine the title '' tandem biplane.'^ The main 
planes have a spread of 41 feet 8 inches, and an area 
of 500 square feet. The tail spreads 24 feet, and 
its area is about 280 square feet The propeller is 
three-bladed, 8 feet in diameter, and revolves at a 
speed of 1,200 revolutions per minute. It is placed 
in front of the main plane, after the fashion of the 
monoplanes. The motive power is an '8-cylinder 
R-E-P engine, developing 55 horse-power. 




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Chapter VI. 
FLYING ilACHlNES: THE MONOPLANE. 

The common goal — Interchanging features — The Bleriot ma- 
chine — First independent flyer — Construction and controls 
— The " Antoinette " — Large area — Great stability — San- 
tos-Dumont's monoplane — Diminutive size — R-E-P mono- 
plane — encased structure — Hanriot machine — Boat body 
— Sturdy build — Pfitzner machine — Lateral type — Thrust- 
ing propeller — Fairchild, Burlingame, Cromley, Chauviere, 
Vendome, and Moisant monoplanes. 

IN all the ardent striving of the aviators to beat 
each other's records, a surprisingly small amount 
of personal rivalry has been developed. Doubtless 
this is partly because their efforts to perform definite 
feats have been absorbing; but it must also be that 
these men, who know that they face a possible fall in 
every flight they make, realize that their competitors 
are as brave as themselves in the face of the same 
danger; and that they are actually accomplishing 
marvellous wonders even if they do no more than just 
escape disastrous failure. Certain it is that each, 
realizing the tremendous difficulties all must over- 
come, respects the others' ability and attainments. 
112 



FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 113 

Consequently we do not find among them two dis- 
tinctly divergent schools of adherents, one composed 
of the biplanists, the other of the monoplanists. Nor 
are the U\o types of machines separated in this book 
for any other purpose than to secure a clearer under- 
standing of what is being achieved by all types in the 
progress toward the one common goal — the flight of 
man. 

The distinctive feature of the monoplane is that 
it has but one main plane, or spread of surface, as 
contrasted with the two planes, one above the other, 
of the biplane. Besides the main plane, it has a sec- 
ondary plane in the rear, called the tail. The office 
of this tail is primarily to secure longitudinal, or 
fore-and-aft, balance; but the secondary plane has 
been so constructed that it is movable on a horizontal 
axis, and is used to steer the machine upward or 
downward. While most of the biplanes now have a 
horizontal tail-plane, they w^ere not at first so pro- 
vided, but carried the secondary plane (or planes) in 
front of the main planes. Even in the latest type 
brought out by the conservative Wright brothers, the 
former large-surfaced elevator in front has been re- 
moved, and a much smaller tail-plane has been added 
in the rear, performing the same function of steering 



114 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 

the machine up or down, but also providing the fore- 
and-aft stabilizing feature formerly peculiar to the 
monoplane. Another feature heretofore distinctively 
belonging to the monoplane has been adopted by some 
of the newer biplanes, that of the traction propeller 
— pulling the machine behind it through the air, in- 
stead of pushing it along by a thrusting propeller 
placed behind the main planes. 

The continual multiplication of new forms of the 
monoplane makes it possible to notice only those 
which exhibit the wider differences. 



THE BT.ERIOT MONOPLAXE. 

The Bieriot monoplane has the distinction of 
being l!ie first wholly successful flying machine. 
Although the Wright machine was making flights 
years before the Bieriot had been built, it was still 
dependent upon a starting device to enable it to leave 
the ground. That is, the AVright machine was not 
complete in itself, and was entirely helpless at even 
a short distance from its starting tower, rail, and car, 
which it was unable to carry along. Because of its 
completeness, M. Bieriot was able to drive his ma- 
chine from Toury to Artenay, France (a distance of 



116 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 

8f miles) on October 31^ 1908^ make a landing, start 
on the retnrn trip, make a second, landing, and again 
continue liis journey back to Toury, all under his 
own unassisted power. This feat was impossible to 
the Wright machine as it was then constructed, thus 
leaving the Bleriot monoplane in undisputed pre- 
eminence in the history of aviation. 

At a little distance, where the details of construc- 
tion are not visible, the Bleriot machine has the ap- 
pearance of a gigantic bird. The sustaining surface, 
consisting of a single plane, is divided into two wings 
made of a stiif parchment-like material, mounted one 
on each side of a framework of the body, which is 
built of mahogany and whitewood trussed with di- 
agonal ties of steel wire. 

The main plane has a lateral spread of 28 feet 
and a depth of 6 feet, and is rounded at the ends. It 
has an area of about 150 square feet, and is slightly 
concave on the under side. The tail-plane is 6 feet 
long and 2 feet 8 inches in depth; at its ends are 
the elevators, consisting of pivoted wing tips each 
about 2 feet 6 inches square with rounded extrem- 
ities. The rudder for steering to left or right is 
mounted at the extreme rear end of the body, and has 
an area of 9 square feet. 



118 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 

The body is framed nearly square in front and 
tapers to a wedge-like edge at the rear. It extends 
far enough in front of the main plane to give room 
for the motor and propeller. The seat for the pilot 




Forward chassis of Bleriot monoplane, showing caster mounting of wheels. 
The framing of the body is shown by the dotted lines. 



is on a line with the rear edge of the main plane, and 
above it. The forward part of the body is enclosed 
with fabric. 

The machine is mounted on three wheels attached 



FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 



119 



to the body: two at the front, with a powerful spring 
suspension and pivoted like a caster, and the other 
rigidly at a point just forward of the rudders. 

The lateral balance is restored by warping the tips 
of the main plane ; if necessary, the elevator tips at 
the rear may be operated to assist in this. All the 




Diagram of Bleriot "No. XL," from the rear. A, A, main plane; B, tail; C, 
body; D, D, wing tips of tail; E, rudder; H, propeller; M, motor; 0, axis 
of wing tips; R, radiator; a, a, b, b, spars of wings; h, h, guy wires; 
p, k, truss. 



controls are actuated by a single lever and a drum 
to which the several wires are attached. 

The motors used on the Bleriot machines have va- 
ried in type and power. In the '^ ?^o. XL/' with 
which M. Bleriot crossed the English Channel, the 
motor was a 3-cylinder Anzani engine, developing 
24 horse-powder at 1,200 revolutions per minute. The 



120 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 

propeller was of wood, 2-bladed, and 6 feet 9 inches 
in diameter. It was mounted directly on the shaft, 
and revolved at the same speed, giving the machine 
a velocity of 37 miles per hour. This model has 



i^ixixiixllXitelXlR 





Sketches showing relative size, construction, and position of pilot in the 
Bleriot machines; "No. XI." (the upper), and "No. XII." (the lower). 



also been fitted with a 30 horse-power E-E-P (R. 
Esnault-Pelterie) motor, having 7 cylinders. The 
heavier type " IS'o. XII.'' has been fitted with the 
50 horse-power Antoinette 8-cylinder engine, or the 
7-cylinder rotating Gnome engine, also of 50 horse- 
power. 



FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 121 

The total weight of the " Xo. XI.'' monoplane is 
462 pounds^ without the pilot. 

THE A]N^TOI>TT2TTE MONOPLAiN^E. 

The Antoinette is the largest and heaviest of the 
monoplanes. It was designed by M. Levavasseur, 
and has proved to be one of the most remarkable of 
the aeroplanes by its performances under adverse con- 
ditions ; notably, the flight of Hubert Latham in a 
gale of 40 miles per hour at Blackpool in October, 
1909. 

The Antoinette has a spread of 46 feet, the sur- 
face being disposed in two wings set at a dihedral 
angle ; that is, the outer ends of the wings incline 
upward from their level at the body, so that at the 
front they present the appearance of a very wide open 
a Y ?? These wings are trapezoidal in form, with the 
wider base attached to the body, where they are 10 
feet in depth (fore and aft). They are 7 feet in 
depth at the tips, and have a total combined area of 
377 square feet. The great depth of the wings re- 
quires that they be made proportionally thick to be 
strong enough to hold their form. Two trussed 
spars are used in each wing, w^ith a short mast on 
each, half-way to the tip, reaching below the wing 




H 



FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 123 

as well as above it. To these are fastened guy wires, 
making each wing an independent truss. A mast 
on the body gives attachment for guys which bind 
the whole into a light and rigid construction. The 
framework of the wings is covered on both sides with 
varnished fabric. 

The body is of triangular section. It is a long 




Vertical 
Rodder 



HorizonCal_ 
Rudde 



Shock Absorber 



Diagram showing construction of the Antoinette monoplane. 

girder; at the front, in the form of a pyramid, ex- 
panding to a prism at the wings, and tapering toward 
the tail. It is completely covered with the fabric, 
which is given several coats of varnish to secure the 
minimum of skin friction. 

The tail is 13 feet long and 9 feet wide, in the 
form of a diamond-shaped kite. The rear part 
of it is hinged to be operated as the elevator. There 



124 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 

is a vertical stabilizing fin set at right angles to the 
rigid part of the tail. The rudder for steering to 
right or left is in two triangular sections, one above 
and the other below the tail-plane. The entire length 
of the machine is 40 feet, and its weight is 1,045 
pounds. 

It is fitted with a motor of the '^ V '' type, having 
8 cylinders, and turning a 2-bladed steel propeller 
1,100 revolutions per minute, developing from 50 
to 55 horse-power. 

The control of the lateral balance is by ailerons 
attached to the rear edges of the wings at their outer 
ends. These are hinged, and may be raised as well 
as lowered as occasion demands, working in opposite 
directions, and thus doubling the effect of similar 
ailerons on the Farman machine, which can only be 
pulled downward. 

The machine is mounted on two wheels under the 
centre of the main plane, with a flexible wood skid 
projecting forward. Another skid is set under the 
tail. 

It is claimed for the Antoinette machine that its 
inherent stability makes it one of the easiest of all 
for the beginner in aviation. With as few as five 
lessons many pupils have become qualified pilots, even 




< 




126 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 

winning prizes against competitors of mncli wider 
experience. 

THE SANTOS-DUMOINTT MOlSrOPLAlSrE. 

This little machine may be called the ''' runabout " 
of the aeroplanes. It has a spread of only 18 feet, 
and is but 20 feet in total length. Its weight is 
about 245 pounds. 

The main plane is divided into two wings^ Avhich 
are set at the body at a dihedral angle, but curve 
downward toward the tips, forming an arch. The 
depth of the wings at the tips is 6 feet. For a space 
on each side of the centre they are cut away to 5 
feet in depth, to allow the propeller to be set within 
their forward edge. The total area of the main plane 
is 110 square feet. 

The tail-plane is composed of a vertical surface 
and a horizontal surface intersecting. It is arranged 
so that it may be tilted up or doAvn to serve as an 
elevator^ or from side to side as a rudder. Its hor- 
izontal surface has an area of about 12 square feet. 

The engine is placed above the main plane and the 
pilot's seat below it. The body is triangular in sec- 
tion, with the apex uppermost, composed of three 
strong bamboo poles with cross-pieces held in place by 
aluminum sockets, and cross braced with piano wdre. 



FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 127 



The motor is of the opposed type, made by Dar- 
racq, weighing only 66 pounds, and deyeloping 30 



I 




Santos-Dumont's La Demoiselle in flight. 

horse-power at 1,500 revohitions per minute. The 
propeller is of wood, 2-bladed, and being mounted 



128 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 

directly on the shaft of the motor, revolves at the 
same velocity. The speed of the Santos-Dumont 
machine is 37 miles per hour. 




The Darracq motor and propeller of the Santos-Dumont machine. The 
conical tank in the rear of the pilot's seat holds the gasoline. 

The lateral balance is preserved by a lever which 
extends upward and enters a long pocket sewed on 
the back of the pilot's coat. His leaning from side 



FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 129 

to side warps the rear edges of the wings at their 
tips. The elevator is moved by a lever, and the rud- 
der by turning a wheel. 

While this machine has not made any extended 
flights, Santos-Dumont has travelled in tlie aggregate 
upward of 2,000 miles in one or another of this type. 

The plans, with full permission to any one to build 

C 
A 




Sketch showing position of pilot in Santos-Dumont machine. A, main plane; 
B, tail plane; C, motor. 

from them, he gave to the public as his contribution 
to the advancement of aviation. Several manufac- 
turers are supplying them at a cost much below that 
of an automobile. 

THE R-E-P MONOPLANE. 

The Robert Esnault-Pelterie (abbreviated by its 
inventor to R-E-P) monoplane, viewed from above, 
bears a striking resemblance to a bird with a fan- 
shaped tail. It is much shorter in proportion to its 
spread than any other monoplane, and the body being 



130 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 

entirely covered with fabric^ it has quite a distinct 
appearance. 

The plane is divided into two wings^ in form very 
much like the wings of the Antoinette machine. 
Their spread, however, is but 35 feet. Their depth 
at the body is 8 feet 6 inches, and at the tips, 5 feet. 
Their total combined area is 226 square feet. 

The body of the R-E-P machine has much the ap- 
pearance of a boat, being wide at the top and coming 
to a sharp keel below. The boat-like prow in front 
adds to this resemblance. As the body is encased 
in fabric, these surfaces aid in maintaining vertical 
stability. 

A large stabilizing fin extends from the pilot's seat 
to the tail. The tail is comparatively large, having 
an area of 64 square feet. Its rear edge may be 
raised or lowered to serve as an elevator. The rud- 
der for steering to right or left is set below in the 
line of the body, as in a boat. It is peculiar in that 
it is of the " compensated " type ; that is, pivoted 
near the middle of its length, instead of at the for- 
ward end. 1 

The control of the lateral balance is through warp- 
ing the wings. This is by means of a lever at the 
left hand of the pilot, with a motion from side to side. 



FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 131 

The same Jever moved forward or backward con- 
trols the elevator. The steering lever is in front of 
the pilot's seat, and moves to right or to left. 

The motor is an invention of M. Esnanlt-Pelterie, 
and may be of 5, 7, or 10 cylinders, according to 




Elevation, showing large stabiliz- 
ing fin ; boat-like body encased in fab- 
ric ; and compensated rudder, pivoted 
at the rear end of the fin. 



Plan, showing comparative spread 
of surfaces, and the attachment of 
wheels at the wing tips. 



Graphic sketch showing elevation and plan of the R-E-P monoplane. 

the power desired. The cylinders are arranged 
in two ranks, one in the rear of the other, radiating 
ontward from the sliaft like spokes in a wheel. 
The propeller is of steel, 4-bladed, and revolves at 
1,400 revolntions per minnte, developing 35 horse- 



132 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 

power, and drawing the machine through the air at 
a speed of 47 miles per hour. 

THE HANRIOT MONOPLANE. 

Among the more familiar machines which have 
been contesting for records at the various European 
meets during the season of 1910, the Hanriot mono- 
plane earned notice for itself and its two pilots, one 
of them the fifteen-year-old son of the inventor. At 
Budapest the Hanriot machine carried off the honors 
of the occasion with a total of 106 points for '' best 
performances/' as against 84 points for the An- 
toinette, and 77 points for the Farman biplane. A 
description of its unusual features will be of in- 
terest by way of comparison. 

In general appearance it is a cross between the 
Bleriot and the Antoinette, the wings being shaped 
more like the latter, but rounded at the rear of the 
tips like the Bleriot. Its chief peculiarity is in the 
body of the machine, which is in form very similar 
to a racing shell — of course with alterations to suit 
the requirements of the aeroplane. Its forward 
part is of thin mahogany, fastened upon ash ribs, 
with a steel plate covering the prow. The rear part 
of the machine is covered simply with fabric. 



FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 133 

The spread of the plane is 24 feet 7 inches, 
and it has an area of 170 square feet. The length of 
the machine, fore-and-aft, is 23 feet. Its weight is 
463 pounds. It is mounted on a chassis having both 
wheels and skids, somewhat like that of the Farman 
running gear, but with two wheels instead of four. 

The Hanriot machine is sturdily built all the way 
through, and has endured without damage some seri- 
ous falls and collisions which would have wrecked 
another machine. 

It is fitted either with a Darracq or a Clerget mo- 
tor^ and speeds at about 44 miles per hour. 

THE PFITZIVTER MONOPLANE. 

The Pfitzner monoplane has the distinction of 
being the first American machine of the single-plane 
type. It was designed and flown by the late Lieut. 
A. L. Pfitzner, and, though meeting with many mis- 
haps, has proved itself worthy of notice by its per- 
formances, through making use of an entirely new 
device for lateral stability. This is the sliding wing 
tip, by which the wing that tends to fall from its 
proper level may be lengthened by 1*5 inches, the 
other wing being shortened as much at the same time. 



134 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 

There is no longitudinal structure, as in the other 
monoplanes, the construction being transverse and 
built upon four masts set in the form of a square, 
6 feet apart, about the centre. These are braced 
by diagonal struts, and tied with wires on the edges 




The Pfitzner monoplane from the rear, showing the sliding wing tips; dihedral 
angle of the wings; square body; and transverse trussed construction. 

of the squares. They also support the guys reaching 
out to the tips of the wings. 

The plane proper is 31 feet in spread, to which 
the wing tips add 2^ feet, and is 6 feet deep, giving 
a total area of 200 square feet. A light framework 
extending 10 feet in the rear carries a tail-plane 6 



136 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 

feet in spread and 2 feet in depth. Both the elevator 
and the rudder planes are carried on a similar frame- 
work^ 14 feet in front of the main plane. 

The wings of the main plane incline upward from 
the centre toward the tips, and are trussed by vertical 
struts and diagonal ties. 

The motor is placed in the rear of the plane, in- 
stead of in front, as in all other monoplanes. It is 
a 4-cylinder Curtiss motor, turning a 6-foot propeller 
at 1,200 revolutions per minute, and developing 25 
horse-power. 

The Pfitzner machine has proved very speedy, and 
has made some remarkably sharp turns on an even 
keel. 

OTHER MOIN^OPLAI^ES. 

Several machines of the monoplane type have been 
produced, having some feature distinct from existing 
forms. While all of these have flown successfully, 
few of them have made any effort to be classed among 
the contestants for honors at the various meets. 

One of these, the Fairchild monoplane, shows re- 
semblances to the R-E-P, the Antoinette, and the 
Bleriot machines, but differs from them all in having 
two propellers instead of one ; and these revolve in 



FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 137 

the same direction, instead of in contrary directions, 
as do those of all other aeroplanes so equipped. The 
inventor claims that there is little perceptible gyro- 
scopic effect with a single propeller, and even less 




The Beach type of the Antoinette, an American modification of the French 
machine, at the Boston Exhibition, 1910. 



with two. The propeller shafts are on the level of 
the plane, but the motor is set about 5 feet below, 
connections being made by a chain drive. 

The -Burlingame monoplane has several peculiar- 
ities. Its main plane is divided into two wings, each 



138 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE, 

10 feet in spread and 5 feet in depth, and set 18 
inches apart at the body. They are perfectly rigid. 
The tail is in two sections, each 4 feet by 5 feet, and 
set with a gap of 6 feet between the sections, in which 
the rndder is placed. Thns the spread of the tail 
from tip to tip is 16 feet, as compared with the 21^ 
foot spread of the main plane. The sections of the 
tail are operated independently, and are made to serve 
as ailerons to control the lateral balance, and also 
as the elevator. 

The Cromley monoplane, another American ma- 
chine, is modelled after the Santos-Dnmont Demoi- 
selle. It has a main plane divided into two wings, 
each 9 feet by 6 feet 6 inches, with a gap of 2 feet 
between at the body; the total area being 117 square 
feet. At the rear of the outer ends are hinged 
ailerons, like those of the Farman biplane, to control 
the lateral balance. The tail is 12 feet in the rear, 
and is of the '' box " type, with two horizontal sur- 
faces and two vertical surfaces. This is mounted 
with a universal joint, so that it can be moved in 
any desired direction. The complete structure, with- 
out the motor, weighs but 60 pounds. 

The Chauviere monoplane is distinct in having a 
rigid spar for the front of the plane, but no ribs. 



FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE. 139 

The surface is allowed to spread out as a sail and 
take form from the wind passing beneath. The rear 
edges may be pnlled down at will to control the lat- 




The Morok monoplane at the Boston Exhibition. It has the body of the 
Bleriot, the wings of the Santos-Dumont, and the shding wing tips of 
the Pfitzner. 

eral balance. It is driven by tw^in screws set far back 
on the body, nearly to the tail. 

The smallest and lightest monoplane in practical 
use is that of M. Eaoul Yendome. It is but 16 feet 
in spread, and is 16 feet fore and aft. It is equipped 
with a 12 horse-power motor, and flies at a speed of 
nearly 60 miles per hour. Without the pilot, its 



140 FLYING MACHINES: THE MONOPLANE, 

entire weight is but 180 pounds. The wings are 
pivoted so that their whole structure may be tilted 
to secure lateral balance. 

The new Moisant monoplane is built wholly of 
metal. The structure throughout is of steel, and the 
surfaces of sheet aluminum in a succession of small 
arches from the centre to the tips. ^No authentic re- 
ports of its performances are available. 

In the Tatin monoplane, also called the Bayard- 
Clement, the main plane is oval in outline, and the 
tail a smaller oval. The surfaces are curved upward 
toward the tips for nearly half their length in both 
the main plane and the tail. The propeller is 8^ feet 
in diameter, and is turned by a Clerget motor, which 
can be made to develop 60 horse-power for starting 
the machine into the air, and then cut down to 30 
horse-power to maintain the flight. 



Chapter VII. 
FLYINQ riACHINES: OTHER FORHS. 

The triplane — The qiiadriiplane — The multiplane — Helicopters 
— Their principle — Obstacles to be overcome — The Cornu 
helicopter — The Leger helicopter — The Davidson gyrop- 
ter — The Breguet gyroplane — The de la Hault ornithopter 
— ^The Bell tetrahedrons — The Russ flyer. 

WHILE the efforts of inventors have been 
principally along the lines of the snccessfnl 
monoplanes and biplanes, genins and energy have 
also been active in other directions. Some of these 
other desigTLs are not mnch more than variations 
from prevailing types, however. 

Among these is the English Roe triplane, which is 
bnt a biplane with an extra plane added ; the depths 
of all being reduced to give approximately the same 
surface as the biplane of the same carrying power. 
The tail is also of the triplane type, and has a com- 
bined area of 160 square feet — just half that of the 
main planes. The triplane type has long been famil- 
iar to Americans in the three-decker glider used ex- 
141 



142 



FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS, 



tensively by Octave Chaniite in Iiis long series of 
experiments at Chicago. 

The qnadrnplane of Colonel Baden-Powell^ also 




The Roe triplane in flight. 

an English type, is practically the biplane with nn- 
nsnally large forward and tail planes. 

The multiplane of Sir Hiram Maxim shonld also 
be remembered, although he never permitted it to 
have free flight. His new multiplane, modelled after 
the former one, but equipped with an improved gaso- 



FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS. 



143 



line motor instead of the heavy steam-engine of the 
first model, will doubtless be put to a practical test 
when experiments with it are completed. 

Quite apart from these variants of the aeroplanes 




Sir Hiram jNIaxim standing beside his huge multiplane. 

are the helicopters^ ornithopters, gyropters, gyro- 
planes, and tetrahedral machines. 



HELICOPTERS. 

The result aimed at in the helicopter is the ability 
to rise vertically from the starting point, instead of 



144 FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS. 

first running along the ground for from 100 to 300 
feet before sufficient speed to rise is attained, as the 
aeroplanes do. The device employed to accomplish 
this result is a propeller, or propellers, revolving hor- 
izontally above the machine. After the desired alti- 
tude is gained it is proposed to travel in any direc- 
tion by changing the plane in which the propellers 
revolve to one having a small angle with the horizon. 

^ Horizontal Path ^ 



1 m 7. 
— -r-'l "Descent 



The force necessary to keep the aeroplane moving in its horizontal path is the 
same as that required to move the automobile of equal weight up the same 
gradient — much less than its total weight. 



The great difficulty encountered with this type of 
machine is that the propellers must lift the entire 
weight. In the case of the aeroplane, the power of 
the engine is used to slide the plane up an incline of 
air, and for this much less power is required. For 
instance, the weight of a Curtiss biplane with the 
pilot on board is about 700 pounds, and this weight 



FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS. 145 

is easily slid up an inclined plane of air with a 
propeller tlirnst of about 240 pounds. 

xinother difScnlty is that the helicopter screws, in 
running at the start before they can attain speed suf- 
ficient to lift their load, have established downward 
currents of air with great velocity, in which the 
screws must run with much less efficiency. With 
the aeroplanes, on the contrary, their running gear 
enables them to run forward on the ground almost 
with the first revolution of the propeller, and as they 
increase their speed the currents — technically called 
the " slip " — become less and less as the engine speed 
increases. 

In the Cornu helicopter, which perhaps has come 
nearer to successful flight than any other, these 
downward currents are checked by interposing 
planes below, set at an angle determined by the op- 
erator. The glancing of the currents of air from the 
planes is expected to drive the helicopter horizontally 
through the air. At the same time these planes offer 
a large degree of resistance, and the engine power 
must be still further increased to overcome this, 
while preserving the lift of the entire weight. With 
an 8-cylinder Antoinette motor, said to be but 24 
horse-power, turning two 20-foot propellers, the ma- 



146 



FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS. 



cliine is reported as lifting itself and two persons 
— a total weight of 723 pounds — to a height of 5 
feet, and sustaining itself for 1 minute. Upon the 
interposing of the planes to produce the horizontal 
motion the machine came immediately to the ground. 
This performance must necessarily be compared 
with that of the aeroplanes, as, for instance, the 




Diagram showing principle of the Cornu hehcopter. P, P, propelHng planes. 
The arrow shows direction of travel with planes at angle shown. 

Wright machine, which, with a 25 to 30 horse-power 
motor operating two 8-foot propellers, raises a weight 
of 1,050 pounds and propels it at a speed of 40 miles 
an hour for upward of 2 hours. 

Another form of helicopter is the Leger machine, 
so named after its French inventor. It has two pro- 
pellers which revolve on the same vertical axis, the 
shaft of one being tubular, encasing that of the other. 
By suitable gearing this vertical shaft may be in- 



148 FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS. 

clined after the machine is in the air in the direction 
in which it is desired to travel. 

The gyropter differs from the Cornu type of heli- 
copter in degree rather than in kind. In the Scotch 
machine, known as the Davidson gyropter, the pro- 
pellers have the form of immense umbrellas made up 
of curving slats. The frame of the structure has the 
shape of a T, one of the gyropters being attached to 
each of the arms of the T. The axes upon which the 
gyropters revolve may be inclined so that their power 
may be exerted to draw the apparatus along in a hor- 
izontal direction after it has been raised to the de- 
sired altitude. 

The gyropters of the Davidson machine are 28 
feet in diameter, the entire structure being 67 feet 
long, and weighing 3 tons. It has been calculated 
that with the proposed pair of 50 horse-power engines 
the gyropters will lift 5 tons. Upon a trial with a 
10 horse-power motor connected to one of the gyrop- 
ters, that end of the apparatus was lifted from the 
ground at 55 revolutions per minute — the boiler 
pressure being 800 lbs. to the square inch, at which 
pressure it burst, wrecking the machine. 

An example of the gyroplane is the French Breguet 
apparatus, a blend of the aeroplane and the helicop- 



FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS. 149 

ter. It combines the fixed wing-planes of the one 
with the revolving vanes of the other. The revolving 
surfaces have an area of 82 square feet, and the fixed 
surfaces 376 square feet. The total weight of ma- 
chine and operator is about 1,350 lbs. Fitted with 
a 40 horse-power motor, it rose freely into the air. 

The ornithopter, or flapping-wing type of flying 
machine, though the object of experiment and re- 
search for years, must still be regarded as unsuccess- 
ful. The apparatus of M. de la Hault may be taken 
as typical of the best effort in that line, and it is yet 
in the experimental stage. The throbbing beat of the 
mechanism, in imitation of the bird's- wings, has 
always proved disastrous to the structure before suf- 
ficient power was developed to lift the apparatus. 

The most prominent exponent of the tetrahedral 
type — that made up of numbers of small cells set 
one upon another — is the Cygnet of Dr. Alexander 
Graham Bell, which perhaps is more a kite than a 
true flying machine. The first Cygnet had 3,000 
cells, and lifted its pilot to a height of 176 feet. The 
Cygnet II, has 5,000 tetrahedral cells, and is pro- 
pelled by a 50 horse-power motor. It has yet to 
make its record. 

One of the most recently devised machines is that 



150 FLYING MACHINES: OTHER FORMS. 

known as the Fritz Russ flyer. It has two wings, 
each in the form of half a cylinder, the convex cnrve 
npward. It is driven by two immense helical screws, 
or spirals, set within the semi-cylinders. No details 
of its performances are obtainable. 



I 



Chapter VIII. 
FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 

Instinctive balance — When the motor skips — Progressive experi- 
ence — Plum Island School methods — Lilienthal's conclu- 
sions — The Curtiss mechanism and controls — Speed records 
— Cross-country flying — Landing — Essential qualifications 
— Ground practice — Future relief. 

A NY one who has learned to ride a bicycle will 
AjL recall the great difficulty at first experienced 
to preserve eqnilibrinm. But once the knack was 
gained, how simple the matter seemed ! Balancing 
became a second nature, which came into play in- 
stinctively, without conscious thought or effort. On 
smooth roads it was not even necessary to grasp the 
handle-bars. The swaying of the body was sufficient 
to guide the machine in the desired direction. 

Much of this experience is paralleled by that of 
the would-be aviator. First, he must acquire the art 
of balancing himself and his machine in the air 
without conscious effort. Unfortunately, this is even 
harder than in the case of the bicycle. The cases 

151 



152 FLYIISG MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 

would be more nearly alike if the road beneath and 
ahead of the bicyclist were heaving and falling as in 
an earthquake, with no light to guide him; for the 
air currents on which the aviator must ride are in 
constant and irregular motion, and are as wholly in- 
visible to him as would be the road at night to the 
rider of the wheel. 

And there are other things to distract the atten- 
tion of the pilot of an aeroplane — ^notably the roar 
of the propeller, and the rush of wind in his face, 
comparable only to the ceaseless and breath-taking 
force of the hurricane. 

The well-known aviator, Charles K. Hamilton, 
says : — " So far as the air currents are concerned, 
I rely entirely on instinctive action; but my ear is 
always on the alert. The danger signal of the avia- 
tor is when he hears his motor miss an explosion. 
Then he knows that trouble is in store. Sometimes 
he can speed up his engine, just as an automobile 
driver does, and get it to renew its normal action. 
But if he fails in this, and the motor stops, he must 
dip his deflecting planes, and try to negotiate a land- 
ing in open country. Sometimes there is no prelim- 
inary warning from the motor that it is going to 
cease working. That is the time when the aviator 



FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 153 

must be prepared to act quickly. Unless the de- 
flecting planes are manipulated instantly, aviator 
and aeroplane will rapidly land a tangled mass on 
the ground." 

At the same time, Mr. Hamilton says : "^ Driving 




Result of a failure to deflect the planes quickly enough when the engine stopped. 
The operator fortunately escaped with but a few bruises. 

an aeroplane at a speed of 120 miles an hour is not 
nearly so difficult a task as driving an automobile 
60 miles an hour. In running an automobile at high 
speed the driver must be on the job every second. 



154 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE, 

I^othing but "antiring vigilance can protect him from 
danger. There are turns in the road^ bad stretches 
of pavement^ and other like difficulties, and he can 
never tell at what moment he is to encounter some 
vehicle, perhaps travelling in the opposite direction. 
But with an aeroplane it is a different proposition. 
Once a man becomes accustomed to aeroplaning, it 
is a matter of unconscious attention. . . . He has 
no obstacles to encounter except cross-currents of air. 
Air and wind are much quicker than a man can 
think and put his thought into action. Unless ex- 
perience has taught the aviator to maintain his equi- 
librium instinctively, he is sure to come to grief.'' 

The Wright brothers spent years in learning the 
art of balancing in the air before they appeared in 
public as aviators. And their method of teaching 
pupils is evidence that they believe the only road to 
successful aviation is through progressive experi- 
ence, leading up from the use of gliders for short 
flights to the actual machines with motors only after 
one has become an instinctive equilibrist. 

At the Plum Island school of the Herring-Bur- 
gess Company the learner is compelled to begin at 
the beginning and work the thing out for himself. 
He is placed in a glider which rests on the ground. 



FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE, 155 



The glider is locked down by a catch which may be 
released by pulling a string. To the front end of the 
glider is attached a long elastic which may be 
stretched more or less, according to the pull desired. 



. ■ 


r ■■; 






#■ 


; '1 

! 

i 


1 


,^^^„_ 


n 




< 




i ^PP^^||^^^p5>#\ 


^^^ fk -^W 


■HPf 


1 


ft 




mS^ 


l^te 


1 


M^.^ 


mm 


m 


-■•'•^'n._\^^^g*jggBg| 


A> ■ .U 


i^HBHl 


HHI 




^1 







A French apparatus for instructing pupils in aviation. 

The beginner starts with the elastic stretched but a 
little. When all is ready he pulls the catch free^ and 
is thrown forward for a few feet. As practice gains 
for him better control, he makes a longer flight ; and 
when he can show a perfect mastery of his craft for 



156 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE, 

a flight of 300 feet, and not till then, he is permitted 
to begin practice with a motor-driven machine. 

The lamented Otto Lilienthal, whose experience 
in more than 2,000 flights gives his instructions 
unquestionable weight, urges that the " gradual devel- 
opment of flight should begin with the simplest ap- 
paratus and movements, and without the complica- 
tion of dynamic means. With simple wing surfaces 
. . . man can carry out limited flights ... by 
gliding through the air from elevated points in paths 
more or less descending. The peculiarities of wind 
effects can best be learned by such exercises. . . . 
The maintenance of equilibrium in forward flight 
is a matter of practice, and can be learned only by 
repeated personal experiment. . . . Actual practice 
in individual flight presents the best prospects for 
developing our capacity until it leads to perfected 
free flight.'' 

The essential importance of thorough preparation 
in the school of experience could scarcely be made 
plainer or stronger. If it seems that undue empha- 
sis has been laid upon this point, the explanation 
must be found in the deplorable death record among 
aviators from accidents in the air. With few excep- 
tions^ the cause of accident has been reported as^ 



FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 157 

^^ The aviator seemed to lose control of bis machine." 
If this is the case with professional flyers, the need 
for thorough preliminary training cannot be too 
strongly insisted upon. 

Having attained the art of balancing, the aviator 
has to learn the mechanism by which he may control 
his machine. While all of the principal machines 
are but different embodiments of the same principles, 
there is a diversity of design in the arrangement of 
the means of control. We shall describe that of the 
Curtiss biplane, as largely typical of them all. 

In general, the biplane consists of two large sus- 
taining planes, one above the other. Between the 
planes is the motor which operates a propeller lo- 
cated in the rear of the planes. Projecting behind 
the planes, and held by a framework of bamboo rods, 
is a small horizontal plane, called the tail. The rud- 
der which guides the aeroplane to the right or the 
left is partially bisected by the tail. This rudder 
is worked by wires which run to a steering wheel lo- 
cated in front of the pilot's seat. This wheel is sim- 
ilar in size and appearance to the steering wheel of 
an automobile, and is used in the same way for 
guiding the aeroplane to the right or left. (See il- 
lustration of the Curtiss machine in Chapter V.) 



158 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 

In front of the planes, supported on a shorter pro- 
jecting framework, is the altitude rudder, a pair 
of planes hinged horizontally, so that their front 
edges may tip up or down. When they tilt up, the 
air through which the machine is passing catches on 
the under sides and lifts them up, thus elevating 
the front of the whole aeroplane and causing it 
to glide upward. The opposite action takes place 
when these altitude planes are tilted downward. 
This altitude rudder is controlled by a long rod 
which runs to the steering wheel. By pushing on the 
wheel the rod is shoved forward and turns the al- 
titude planes upward. Pulling the wheel turns the 
rudder planes downward. This rod has a back- 
ward and forward thrust of over two feet, but the 
usual movement in ordinary wind currents is rarely 
more than an inch. In climbing to high levels or 
swooping down rapidly the extreme play of the rod 
is about four or five inches. 

Thus the steering wheel controls both the horizon- 
tal and vertical movements of the aeroplane. More 
than this, it is a feeler to the aviator, warning him 
of the condition of the air currents, and for this rea- 
son must not be grasped too firmly. It is to be held 
steady, yet loosely enough to transmit any wavering 



160 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE, 

force in the air to the sensitive touch of the pilot, 
enabling him instinctively to rise or dip as the cur- 
rent compels. 

The preserving of an even keel is accomplished 
in the Curtiss machine by small planes hinged be- 
tween the main planes at the outer ends. They 
serve to prevent the machine from tipping over side- 
ways. They are operated by arms, projecting from 
the back of the aviator's seat, which embrace his 
shoulders on each side, and are moved by the sway- 
ing of his body. In a measure, they are automatic 
in action, for when the aeroplane sags downward 
on one side, the pilot naturally leans the other way 
to preserve his balance, and that motion swings the 
ailerons (as these small stabilizing planes are called) 
in such a way that the pressure of the wind restores 
the aeroplane to an even keel. The wires which con- 
nect them with the back of the seat are so arranged 
that when one aileron is being pulled down at its 
rear edge the rear of the other one is being raised, 
thus doubling the effect. As the machine is righted 
the aviator comes back to an upright position, and 
the ailerons become level once more. 

There are other controls which the pilot must 
operate consciously. In the Curtiss machine these 



162 FLYING MACHINES: IIOW TO OPERATE. 

are levers moved by the feet. With a pressure of the 
right foot he short-circuits the magneto, thus cutting 
off the spark in the engine cylinders and stopping 
the motor. This lever also puts a brake on the for- 
ward landing v^heels, and checks the speed of the 
machine as it touches the ground. The right foot 
also controls the pump which forces the lubricating 
oil faster or slower to the points where it is needed. 

The left foot operates the lever which controls the 
throttle by which the aviator can regulate the flow 
of gas to the engine cylinders. The average speed 
of the 7-foot propeller is 1,100 revolutions per min- 
ute. AVith the throttle it may be cut down to 100 
revolutions per minute, which is not fast enough to 
keep afloat, but will help along when gliding. 

Obviously, travelling with the wind enables the 
aviator to make his best speed records, for the speed 
of the wind is added to that of his machine through 
the air. Again, since the wind is always slower near 
the ground, the aviator making a speed record will 
climb up to a level where the surface currents no 
longer affect his machine. But over hilly and wood- 
ed country the air is often flowing or rushing in con- 
flicting channels, and the aviator does not know what 
he may be called upon to face from one moment to 



y 



FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 



163 



the next. If the aeroplane starts to drop, it is only 
necessary to push the steering wheel forward a lit- 
tle — perhaps half an inch — to bring it np again. 
ITsiially, the machine will drop on an even keel. 
Then, in addition to the motion just described, the 
aviator will lean toward the higher side, thus mov- 




Diagram showing action of wind on flight of aeroplane. The force and direc- 
tion of the wind being represented by the Une A B, and the propelhrg 
force and steered direction being A C, the actual path travelled will be A D. 



ing the ailerons by the seat-back, and at the same 
time he will tnrn the steering wheel toward the low- 
er side. This movement of the seat-back is rarely 
more than 2 inches. 

In flying across conntry a sharp lookout is kept 
on the land below. If it be of a character unfit for 
landing, as woods, or thickly settled towns, the avia- 
tor must keep high up in the air, lest his engine 



164 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 

stop and he be compelled to glide to the earth. A 
machine will glide forward 3 feet for each foot that 
it drops^ if skilfully handled. If he is up 200 feet, 
he will have to find a landing ground within 600 
feet. If he is up 500 feet, he may choose his alight- 
ing ground anywhere within 1,500 feet. Over a city 
like New York, a less altitude than 1,500 feet would 
hardly be safe, if a glide became necessary. 

Mr. Clifford B. Harmon, who was an aeronaut 
of distinction before he became an aviator, under the 
instruction of Paulhan, has this to say : " It is like 
riding a bicycle, or running an automobile. You 
have to try it alone to really learn how. When one 
first handles a flying machine it is advisable to keep 
on the ground, just rolling along. This is a harder 
mental trial than you will imagine. As soon as one 
is seated in a flying machine he wishes to fly. It is 
almost impossible to submit to staying near the earth. 
But until the manipulation of the levers and the 
steering gear has become second nature, this must be 
done. It is best to go very slow in the beginning. 
Skipping along the ground will teach a driver much. 
When one first gets up in the air it is necessary to 
keep far from all obstacles, like buildings, trees, or 
crowds. There is the same tendency to run into 



;-- 




166 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 

them that an amateur bicycle rider has in regard 
to stones and ruts on the ground. When he keeps 
his eye on them and tries with all his might to steer 
clear of them/ he runs right into them." 

When asked what he regarded the fundamental 
requirements in an aviator, Mr. Harmon said: 
'' First, he must be muscularly strong, so that he 
will not tire. Second, he should have a thorough 
understanding of the mechanism of the machine he 
drives. Third, mental poise — the ability to think 
quick and to act instantly upon your thought. 
Fourth, a feeling of confidence in the air, so that 
he will not feel strange or out of place. This fa- 
miliarity with the air can be best obtained by first 
being a passenger in a balloon, then by controlling 
one alone, and lastly going up in a flying machine.'' 

Mr. Claude Grahame-White, the noted English 
aviator, has this to say of his first experience with 
his big '^ No. XII." Bleriot monoplane — which dif- 
fers in many important features from the '' No. 
XI." machine in which ]\L Bleriot crossed the Eng- 
lish Channel : '' After several disappointments, I 
eventually obtained the delivery of my machine in 
working order. ... As I had gathered a good deal 
of information from watching the antics and profit- 



FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 167 

ing by the errors made by other beginners on Bleriot 
monoplanes, I had a good idea of what not to do 
when the engine was started up and we were ready 
for our first trial. ... It was a cold morning, but 




Grahame- White on his Bleriot No. XII . The lever in front of him operates 
all the controls through the movement of the drum at its base. 



the engine started up at the first quarter turn. After 
many Avarnings from M. Bleriot's foreman not on 
anv account to accelerate mv engine too much, I 
mounted the machine along with my friend as pas- 
senger, and immediately gave the word to let go, and 



168 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 

we were soon speeding along the ground at a good 
sixty kilometers (about 37 miles) per hour. . . . 
Being very anxious to see whether the machine would 
lift off the ground, I gave a slight jerk to the elevat- 
ing plane, and soon felt the machine rise into the 
air; but remembering the warnings of the foreman, 
and being anxious not to risk breaking the machine, 
I closed the throttle and contented myself with run- 
ning around on the ground to familiarize myself with 
the handling of the machine. . . . The next day we 
got down to Issy about five o'clock in the morning, 
some two hours before the Bleriot mechanics turned 
up. However, we got the machine out, and tied it 
to some railings, and then I had my first experience 
of starting an engine, which to a novice at first sight 
appears a most hazardous undertaking ; for unless 
the machine is either firmly held by several men, or 
is strongly tied up, it has a tendency to immediately 
leap forward. We successfully started the engine, 
and then rigged up a leash, and when we had 
mounted the machine, we let go; and before eight 
o'clock we had accomplished several very successful 
flights, both with and against the wind. These ex- 
periences we continued throughout the day, and by 
nightfall I felt quite capable of an extended flight, 



FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 169 

if only the ground had been large enough. . . . The 
following day M. Bleriot returned, and he sent for 
me and strongly urged me not to use the aeroplane 




Diagram of Bleriot monoplane, showing controlling lever L and bell-shaped 
drum C, to which all controlling wires are attached. When the bell is 
rocked back and forward the elevator tips on the rear plane are moved; 
rocking from side to side moves the stabilizing tips of the main plane. 
Turning the bell around moves the rudder. 

any more at Issy, as he said the ground was far too 
small for such a powerful machine." 



170 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 

The caution shown by these experienced aviators 
cannot be too closely followed by a novice. These 
men do not say that their assidnoi:3 practice on the 




The Marmonier ' gyroscopic pen- 
dulum, devised to secure 
automatic stability of aero- 
planes. The wheels are 
driven by the aeroplane mo- 
tor at high speed. The pen- 
dulum rod is extended up- 
ward above the axis and 
carries a vane which is en- 
gaged by any gust of wind 
from either side of the aero- 
plane, tending to tilt the 
pendulum, and bringing its 
gyroscopic resistance into 
play to warp the wings, or 
operate ailerons. 



ground was the fruit of timidity. On the contrary, 
although they are long past the preliminary stages, 
their advice to beginners is uniformly in the line of 
caution and thorough practice. 



FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE. 171 

Even after one has become an expert, the battle 
is not won^ by any means. While flying in calm 




When the aeroplane is steered to the left, the pendulum swings to the right and 
depresses the right side of the plane, as in (c). The reaction of the air 
raises the right side of the plane until both surfaces are perpendicular 
to the inclined pendulum, as in (d). 

Diagrams showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum. 



weather is extremely pleasurable, a protracted flight 
is very fatiguing ; and wdien it is necessary to wrestle 



172 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE, 

with gusts of high wind and fickle air currents, the 
strain upon the strongest nerve is a serious source 
of danger in that the aviator is liable to be suddenly 
overcome by weariness when he most needs to be 
on the alert. 

Engine troubles are much fewer than they used 
to be, and a more dependable form of motor relieves 




In that inclined position the aeroplane makes the turn, and when the course 
again becomes straight, both the gyroscopic and centrifugal forces cease, 
and the pendulum under the influence of gravity becomes vertical. In 
this position it is inclined to the left with respect to the planes, on which 
its effect is to depress the left wing and so right the aeroplane, as in (e). 

Diagram showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum. 



the mind of the aviator from such mental disturb- 
ance. Some device in the line of a wind-shield 
would be a real boon, for even in the best weather 
there is the ceaseless rush of air into one's face at 
45 to 50 miles an hour. The endurance of this for 
hours is of itself a tax upon the most vigorous 
physique. 



FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO OPERATE, 173 

With the passing of the present spectacular stage 
of the art of flying there will doubtless come a more 
reliable form of machine, with corresponding relief 





If, when pursuing a straight course, the aeroplane is tilted by a sideways wind 
(6), the action of the pendulum as described above restores it to an even 
keel, as in (a). 

Diagrams showing action of Marmonier gyroscopic pendulum. 



to the operator. Automatic mechanism will sup- 
plant the intense and continual mental attention now 
demanded ; and as this demand decreases, the joys of 
flying will be considerably enhanced. 



Chapter IX. 
FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD. 

Santos-Dumont's gift — La Demoiselle — Mechanical skill re- 
quired — Preparatory practice — General dimensions — The 
frame — The motor — The main planes — The rudder-tail — 
The propeller — Shaping the blades — Maxim's experience — 
The running gear — The controls — Scrupulous workman- 
ship. 

WHEN" Santos-DiTmoiit in 1909 gave to the 
world the unrestricted privilege of building 
monoplanes after the plans of his famous No. 20 — 
afterward named La Demoiselle — he gave not only 
the best he knew^ but as much as any one knows 
about the building of flying machines. Santos- 
Dumont has chosen the monoplane for himself be- 
cause his long experience commends it above others, 
and La Demoiselle was the crowning achievement 
of years spent in the construction and operation of 
airships of all types. In view of Santos-Dumonf s 
notable successes in his chosen field of activity, no 

one will go astray in following his advice. 
174 



FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD. 175 

Of course, the possession of plans and specifica- 
tions for an aeroplane does not make any man a 
skilled mechanic. It is well to understand at the 
start that a certain degree of mechanical ability is 
required in building a machine which will be entirely 
safe. Nor does the possession of a successful machine 
make one an aeronaut. As in the case of bicycling, 
there is no substitute for actual experience, while in 
the airship the art of balancing is of even greater 
importance than on the bicycle. 

The would-be aviator is therefore advised to put 
himself through a course of training of mind and 
body. 

Intelligent experimenting with some one of the 
models described in Chapter XI. will teach much of 
the action of aeroplanes in calms and when winds are 
blowing; and practice with an easily constructed 
glider (see Chapter XII.) will give experience in 
balancing wdiich will be of the greatest value when 
one launches into the air for the first time with a 
power-driven machine. An expert acquaintance with 
gasoline motors and magnetos is a prime necessity. 
In short, every bit of information on the subject of 
flying machines and their operation cannot fail to be 
useful in some degree. 



176 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD, 

The dimensions of the various parts of the San- 
tos-Dnmont monoplane are given on the original 
plans according to the metric system. In reducing 
these to " long measure '' inches, all measurements 
have been given to the nearest eighth of an inch. 

In general, we may note some of the peculiari- 
ties of La Demoiselle. The spread of the plane is 
18 feet from tip to tip, and it is 20 feet over all 
from bow to stern. In height, it is about 4 feet 2 
inches when the propeller blades are in a horizontal 
position. The total weight of the machine is 265 
lbs., of which the engine weighs about 66 lbs. The 
area of the plane is 115 square feet, so that the to- 
tal weight supported by each square foot with San- 
tos-Dumont (weighing 110 lbs.) on board is a trifle 
over 3 lbs. 

The frame of the body of the monoplane is largely 
of bamboo, the three main poles being 2 inches in 
diameter at the front, and tapering to about 1 inch 
at the rear. They are jointed with brass sockets 
just back of the plane, for convenience of taking 
apart for transportation. Two of these poles extend 
from the axle of the wheels backward and slightly 
upward to the rudder-post. The third extends from 
the middle of the plane between the wings, back- 








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178 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD, 

ward and downward to the rudder-post. In cross- 
section the three form a triangle with the apex at 
the top. These bamboo poles are braced about every 
2 feet with struts of steel tubing of oval section, 
and the panels so formed are tied by diagonals of 
piano wire fitted with turn-buckles to draw* them 
taut. 

In the Santos-Dumont machine a 2-cylinder, 
opposed Darracq motor of 30 horse-power was used. 
It is of the water-cooled type, the cooling radiator 
being a gridiron of very thin ^-inch copper tubing, 
and hung up on the under side of the plane on either 
side of the engine. The cylinders have a bore of 
about 4^ inches, and a stroke of about 4f inches. 
The propeller is 2-bladed, 6|^ feet across, and is 
run at 1,400 revolutions per minute, at which speed 
it exerts a pull of 242 lbs. 

Each wing of the main plane is built upon 2 
transverse spars extending outward from the upper 
bamboo pole, starting at a slight angle upward and 
bending downward nearly to the horizontal as they 
approach the outer extremities. These spars are of 
ash, 2 inches wide, and tapering in thickness from 
1-J inches at the central bamboo to about J inch at 
the tips of the wings. They are bent into shape by 



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180 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD. 

immersion in hot water, and straining them around 
blocks nailed to the floor of the workshop, in the 
form shown at QQ, p. 177. 

The front spar is set about 9 inches back from the 
front edge of the plane, and the rear one about 12 
inches forward of the back edge of the plane. Across 
these spars, and beneath them, running fore and aft, 
are bamboo rods about f of an inch in diameter 
at the forward end, and tapering toward the rear. 
They are set 8|^ inches apart (centre to centre), ex- 
cept at the tips of the wings. The two outer panels 
are 10^^ inches from centre to centre of the rods, to 
give greater elasticity in warping. These fore-and- 
aft rods are 6 feet 5 inches long, except directly 
back of the propeller, where they are 5 feet 8 inches 
long; they are bound to the spars with brass wire 
No. 25, at the intersections. They also are bent to 
a curved form, as shown in the plans, by the aid of 
the hot-water bath. Diagonal guys of piano wire are 
used to truss the frame in two panels in each wing. 

Around the outer free ends of the rods runs a 
piano wire ITo. 20, which is let into the tips of the 
rods in a slot f inch deep. To prevent the splitting 
of the bamboo, a turn or two of the brass wire may 
be made around the rod just back of the slot; but 



182 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD, 

it is much better to provide thin brass caps for the 
ends of the rods, and to cut the slots in the metal 
as well as in the rods. Instead of caps, ferrules will 
do. When the slots are cut, let the tongue formed 
in the cutting be bent down across the bamboo to 
form the floor to the slot, upon which the piano wire 
may rest. The difference in weight and cost is very 
little, and the damage that mav result from a split 
rod may be serious. 

After the frame of the plane is completed it is 
to be covered with cloth on both sides, so as entirely 
to enclose the frame, except only the tips of the rods, 
as shown in the plans. In the Santos-Dumont mono- 
plane the cloth used is of closely woven silk, but a 
strong, unbleached muslin will do — the kind made 
especially for aeroplanes is best. 

Both upper and lower surfaces must be stretched 
taut, the edges front and back being turned over the 
piano wire, and the wire hemmed in. The upper 
and lower surfaces are then sewed together — 
" through and through," as a seamstress would say — 
along both sides of each rod, so that the rods are 
practically in '^ pockets." I^othing must be slighted, 
if safety in flying is to be assured. 

The tail of the monoplane is a rigid combination 




(/50/.C) 1 
Sectional diagram of 2-cylinder Darracq opposed motor. 




Diagram, of 4-cylinder Darracq opposed motor. 




Diagram of 3-cylinder Anzani motor. 
Motors suitable for La Demoiselle monoplane, 



184 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD, 

of two planes intersecting each other at right angles 
along a central bamboo pole which extends back 3 
feet 54^ inches from the rudder-post, to which it is 
attached by a double joint, permitting it to move 
upon eitbbr the vertical or the horizontal axis. 

Although this tail, or rudder, may seem at first 
glance somewhat complicated in the plans, it will not 
be found so if the frame of the upright or vertical 
plane be first constructed, and that of the level or 
horizontal plane afterward built fast to it at right 
angles. 

As with the main plane, the tail is to be covered 
on both sides with cloth, the vertical part first; the 
horizontal halves on either side so covered that the 
cloth of the latter may be sewed above and below 
the central pole. All of the ribs in the tail are to be 
stitched in with ^^ pockets," as directed for the rods 
of the main plane. 

The construction of the motor is possible to an 
expert machinist only, and the aeroplane builder will 
save time and money by buying his engine from a 
reliable maker. It is not necessary to send to 
Franceior a Darracq motor. Any good gasoline 
engine of equal power, and about the same weight, 
will serve the purpose. 



FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD. 



185 



The making of the propeller is practicable for a 
careful workman. The illustrations will give a bet- 
ter idea than words of how it should be done. It 
should be remembered^ however, that^ the safety of 
the aviator depends as much upon th% propeller as 
upon any other part of the machine. The splitting 
of the blades when in motion has been the cause of 



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Diagram showing how the layers of wood are placed for glueing: A, at the hub; 
B, half way to the tip of the blade; C, at the tip. The dotted lines show 
the form of the blade at these points. 



serious accidents. The utmost care, therefore, should 
be exercised in the selection of the wood, and in the 
glueing of the several sections into one solid mass, 
allowing the work to dry thoroughly under heavy 
pressure. ^^'- 

The forming of the blades requires a good deal of 
skill, and some careful preliminary study. It is ap- 



186 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD. 

parent that the speed of a point at the tip of a re- 
volving blade is much greater than that of a point 
near the hub, for it traverses a larger circle in the 
same period of time. But if the propeller is to do 
effective work without unequal strain, the twist in the 
blade must be such that each point in the length of 
the blade is exerting an equal pull on the air. It 
is necessary, therefore, that the slower-moving part 
of the blade, near the hub, or axis, shall cut ^'^ deeper'' 
into the air than the more swiftly moving tip of 
the blade. Consequently the blade becomes contin- 
ually ^^ flatter " (approaching the plane in which it 
revolves) as we work from the hub outward toward 
the tip. This '^ flattening " is well shown in the 
nearly finished blade clamped to the bench at the 
right of the illustration — which shows a four-bladed 
propeller, instead of the two-bladed type needed for 
the monoplane. 

The propeller used for propulsion in air differs 
from the propeller-wheel used for ships in water, 
in that the blades are curved laterally; the forward 
face of the blade being convex, and the rearward 
face concave. The object of this shaping is the same 
as for curving the surface of the plane^ — to secure 
smoother entry into the air forward^ and a compres- 



188 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD. 

sion in the rear which adds to the holding power on 
the substance of the air. It is extremely difficult to 
describe this complex shape, and the amateur builder 
of a propeller will do well to inspect one made by a 
professional, or to buy it ready made with his engine. 

The following quotation from Sir Hiram Maxim's 
account of his most effective propeller may aid the 
ambitious aeroplane builder : " My large screws were 
made with a great degree of accuracy ; they were per- 
fectly smooth and even on both sides, the blades being 
thin and held in position by a strip of rigid wood 
on the back of the blade. . . . Like the small screws^ 
they were made of the very best kind of seasoned 
American white pine, and when finished were var- 
nished on both sides with hot glue. When this was 
thoroughly dry, they were sand-papered again, and 
made perfectly smooth and even. The blades were 
then covered with strong Irish linen fabric of the 
smoothest and best make. Glue was used for attach- 
ing the fabric, and when dry another coat of glue 
was applied, the surface rubbed down again, and 
then painted with zinc white in the ordinary way and 
varnished. These screws worked exceedingly well.'' 

The covering of the blades with linen glued fast 
commends itself to the careful workman as afford- 



FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD. 



189 



iiig precaution against the splintering of the blades 
when in rapid motion. Some propellers have their 
wooden blades encased with thin sheet aluminum to 



This method of mounting the 
wheels of the chassis has 
been found the most satis- 
factory. The spring takes 
up the shock of a sudden 
landing and the pivot work- 
ing in the hollow post allows 
the entire mounting to swing 
like a caster, and adapt it- 
self to any direction at which 
the machine may strike the 
ground. 




accomplish the same purpose^ but for the amateur 
builder linen is far easier to apply. 

The w^heels are of the bicycle type^ with wire 
spokes^ but with hubs six inches long. The axle is 
bent to incline upward at the ends, so that the wheels 
incline outward at the ground, the better to take 
the shock of a sideways thrust when landing. The 
usual metal or wood rims may be used, but special 



190 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BUILD. 

tires of exceptionally light construction, made for 
aeroplanes, should be purchased. 

The controlling wires or cords for moving the rud- 
der (or tail) and for warping the tips of the wings 
are of flexible wire cable, such as is made for use 
as steering rope on small boats. The cable controll- 
ing the horizontal plane of the rudder-tail is fastened 
to a lever at the right hand of the operator. The 
cable governing the vertical plane of the rudder-tail 
is attached to a wheel at the left hand of the op- 
erator. The cables which warp the tips of the wings 
are fastened to a lever which projects upward just 
back of the operator's seat, and which is slipped 
into a long pocket sewed to the back of his coat, so 
that the swaying of his body in response to the fling 
of the tipping machine tends to restore it to an even 
keel. Springs are attached to all of these controlling 
wires, strong enough to bring them back to a normal 
position when the operator removes his hands from 
the steering apparatus. 

The brass sockets used in connecting the tubular 
struts to the main bamboos and the rudder-post, and 
in fastening the axle of the wheels to the lower bam- 
boos and elsewhere, should be thoroughly made and 
brazed by a good mechanic, for no one should risk 




^ =^ / \ — ===== ^'-^^^ 
■ ^ ■ ^ i!/ . 

Diagram of Bleriot monoplane showing sizes of parts, in metres. Reduced to 
feet and inches these measurements are: 

0.60 metres 1 ft. 113^ in. 

1.50 metres 4 ft. 11 in. 

2.10 metres 6 ft. 103^ in. 

3.50 metres 11 ft. 6 in. 

8.00 metres 26 ft. 3 in. 

8.60 metres 28 ft. 23^ in. 

The diagram being drawn to scale other dimensions may be found. In both 
the plan (upper figure) and elevation (lower figure), A, A, is the main plane; 
B, tail plane; C, body; Z), elevator wing-tips; E, rudder; a, a, rigid spar; 
6, 6, flexible spar; r, r, points of attachment for warping- wires ; h, h, guys; 
H, propeller; M, motor; R, radiator; S, pilot's seat; P, chassis. 



192 FLYING MACHINES: HOW TO BJJILD. 

the chance of a faulty joint at a critical spot^ when 
an accident may mean the loss of life. 

For the rest, it has seemed better to put the details 
of construction on the plans themselves, where they 
will be available to the aeroplane builder without the 
trouble of continually consulting the text. 

Some of the.i i^vork on an aeroplane will be found 
simple and ea^; some of it, difficult and requiring 
much patience ; and some impracticable to any one 
but a trained Mechanic. But in all of it, the work- 
er's motto should be, '' Fidelity in every detail.'^ 



II 



i 






Chapter X. 
FLYING HACHINES: nOTORS, 

Early use of steam — Reliability necessary — ^The gasoline motor 
— Carbiiretion — Compression — Ignition — Air-cooling — Wa- 
ter-cooling — Lubrication — The magneto — Weight — Types of 
motors — The propeller — Form, size, and pitch — Slip — Mate- 
rials — Construction. 

THE possibility of the existence of the flying 
machine as we have it to-day has been ascribed 
to the invention of the gasoline motor. While this 
is not to be denied, it is also true that the gasoline 
motors designed and built for automobiles and motor- 
boats have had to be wellnigh revolutionized to make 
them suitable for use in the various forms of air- 
craft. And it is to be remembered, doubtless to their 
greater credit, that Henson, Hargrave, Langley, and 
Maxim had all succeeded in adapting steam to the 
problem of the flight of models, the two latter using 
gasoline to produce the steam. 

Perhaps the one predominant qualification de- 

193 



194 FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS. 

manded of the aeroplane motor is reliability. A 
motor-car or motor-boat can be stopped, and engine 
troubles attended to with comparatively little incon- 
venience. The aeroplane simply cannot stop without 
peril. It is possible for a skilful pilot to reach the 
earth when his engine stops, if he is fortunately high 
enough to have space for the downward glide which 
will gain for him the necessary headway for steering. 
At a lesser height he is sure to crash to the earth. 

An understanding of the principles on which the 
gasoline motor works is essential to a fair estimate 
of the comparative advantages of the different types 
used to propel aeroplanes. In the first place, the rad- 
ical difference between the gasoline motor and other 
engines is the method of using the fuel. It is not 
burned in ordinary fashion, but the gasoline is first 
vaporized and mixed with a certain proportion of air, 
in a contrivance called a carburetor. This gaseous 
mixture is pumped into the cylinder of the motor 
by the action of the motor itself, compressed into 
about one-tenth of its normal volume, and then ex- 
ploded by a strong electric spark at just the right 
moment to have its force act most advantageously to 
drive the machinery onward. 

It is apparent that there are several chances for 



FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS. 



195 



failure in this series. The carburetor may not do 
its part accurately. The mixture of air and vapor 
may not be in such proportions that it will explode; 
in that case, the power from that stroke will be miss- 
ing, and the engine will falter and slow down. Or 
a leakage in the cylinder may prevent the proper 




The "Fiat" 8-cylinder air-cooled motor, of the "V" type, made in France. 

compression of the mixture, the force from the ex- 
plosion will be greatly reduced, with a corresponding 
loss of power and speed. Or the electric spark may 
not be " fat " enough — that is, of sufficient volume 
and heat to fire the mixture ; or it may not " spark '' 
at just the right moment; if too soon, it will exert 



196 



FLYIXG MACHINES: MOTORS. 



its force against the onward motion : if too late, it 
will not deliver the full power of the explosion at the 
time when its force is most useful. The necessity 
for absolute perfection in these operations is obvious. 




A near view ' 






Le CLriTiHg aiQr. 



Other peculiarities of the gasoline motor affect 
considerably its use for aeroplanes. The continual 
and oft-re|3eated explosions of the gaseous mixture 
inside of the cylinder generate great heat, and this 

not onlv interferes with its regularity of movement. 




The Holmes rotative engine. 7-cylinder 35 horse-power, weighing 160 pounds. 
Aa American engine built in Chicago, 111. 



198 FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS. 

but within a very brief time checks it altogether. 
To keep the cylinder cool enough to be serviceable, 
two methods are in use: the air-cooling system and 
the water-cooling system. In the first, flanges of 
very thin metal are cast on the outside of the cylin- 




The 180 horse-power engine of Sir Hiram Maxim; of the "opposed" type, 
compound, and driven by steam. 



der wall. These flanges take up the intense heat, 
and being spread out over a large surface in this 
way, the rushing of the air through them as the ma- 
chine flies (or sometimes blown through them with 
a rotary fan) cools them to some degree. With the 
water-cooling system, the cylinder has an external 
jacket, the space between being filled with water 
which is made to circulate constantly by a small 



FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS. 



199 



pump. In its course the water which has just taken 
up the heat from the cylinder travels through a radi- 
ator in which it is spread out very thin, and this 
radiator is so placed in the machine that it receives 




The Anzani motor and propeller which carried M. Bleriot across the English 
Channel. The curved edge of the propeller blades is the entering edge, 
the propeller turning from the right of the picture over to the left. The 
Anzani is of the " radiant " type and is of French build. 



the full draught from the air rushing through the 
machine as it flies. The amount of water required 
for cooling a motor is about li lbs. per horse-power. 
With an 8-cylinder 50 horse-power motor^ this water 



200 FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS. 

would add the very considerable item of 60 lbs. to the 
weight the machine has to carry. As noted in a pre- 
vious chapter, the McCurdy biplane has its radiator 
formed into a sustaining plane, and supports its own 
weight when travelling in the air. 

It is an unsettled point with manufacturers 
whether the greater efficiency (generally acknowl- 
edged) of the water-cooled engine more than com- 
pensates for the extra weight of the water. 

Another feature peculiar to the gasoline motor is 
the necessity for such continual oiling that it is styled 
'' lubrication/' and various devices have been in- 
vented to do the work automatically, without atten- 
tion from the pilot further than the watching of his 
oil-gauge to see that a full flow of oil is being pumped 
through the oiling system. 

The electric current w^hich produces the spark 
inside of the cylinder is supplied by a magneto, a 
machine formed of permanent magnets of horseshoe 
form, between the poles of which a magnetized arma- 
ture is made to revolve rapidly by the machinery 
which turns the propeller. This magneto is often 
connected with a small storage battery, or accumu- 
lator, which stores up a certain amount of current for 
use when starting, or in case the magneto gives out. 



202 



FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS, 



The great rivalry of the builders of motors has 
been in cutting down the weight per horse-power to 
the lowest possible figure. It goes without saying 
that useless weight is a disadvantage in an aeroplane, 
but it has not been proven that the very lightest en- 




The "Gobron'* engine of the "double opposed,** or cross-shaped type. 
A water-cooled engine, with 8 cylinders. 

gines have made a better showing than those of stur- 
dier build. 

One of the items in the weight of an engine has 
been the fly-wheel found necessary on all motors of 
4 cylinders or less to give steadiness to the run- 



FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS. 



203 



ning. With a larger number of cylinders, and a con- 
sequently larger number of impulses in the circuit of 
the propeller, the vibration is so reduced that the 
fly-wheel has been dispensed with. 

There are several distinct types of aircraft en- 
gines, based on the arrangement of the cylinders. 




The Emerson 6-cylinder aviation engine, of the "tandem" type, water-cooled; 
60 horse-power; made at Alexandria, Va. 

The " tandem " type has the cylinders standing up- 
right in a row, one behind another. There may be 
as many as eight in a row. The Curtiss and Wright 
engines are examj^les. Another type is the " op- 
posed " arrangement^ the cylinders being placed in a 




1 



FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS. 205 

horizontal position and in two sets, one working op- 
posite the other. An example of this type is seen in 
the Darracq motor used on the Santos-Dumont mono- 
plane. Another type is the " V '^ arrangement, the 
cylinders set alternately leaning to right and to left, 
as seen in the " Fiat " engine. Still another type 
is the " radiant,'' in which the cylinders are all above 
the horizontal, and disposed like rays from the rising 
snn. The 3-cylinder Anzani engine and the 5- and 
7-cylinder R-E-P engines are examples. The ^' star '' 
type is exemplified in the 5 and 7-cylinder en- 
gines in which the cylinders radiate at equal angles 
all around the circle. The '' double opposed " or 
cross-shaped type is shown in the " Gobron " engine. 
In all of these types the cylinders are stationary, 
and turn the propeller shaft either by cranks or by 
gearing. 

An entirely distinct type of engine, and one which 
has been devised solely for the aeroplane, is the ro- 
tative — often miscalled the rotary, which is totally 
different. The rotative type may be illustrated by 
the Gnome motor. In this engine the seven cylin- 
ders turn around the shaft, which is stationary. The 
propeller is fastened to the cylinders, and revolves 
with them. This ingenious effect is produced by an 





The famous Gnome motor; 50 horse-power, 7-cylinder, air-cooled; of the 
rotative type; made in France. This illustration shows the Gnome steel 
propeller. 




Sectional diagram of the 5-cylinder R-E-P motor; of the "radiant" type. 




Sectional ' diagram of the 5-cylinder Bayard-Clement motor; of the "star" 

type. 



208 FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS. 

offset of the crank-shaft of half the stroke of the pis- 
tons, whose rods are all connected with the crank- 
shaft. The entire system revolves around the main 
shaft as a centre, the crank-shaft being also station- 
ary. 

Strictly speaking, the propeller is not a part of the 
motor of the flying machine, but it is so intimately 
connected with it in the utilization of the power cre- 
ated by the motor, that it will be treated of briefly 
in this chapter. 

The form of the air-propeller has passed through 
a long and varied development, starting with that of 
the marine propeller, which was found to be very in- 
efiicient in so loose a medium as air. On account of 
this lack of density in the air, it was found necessary 
to act on large masses of it at practically the same 
time to gain the thrust needed to propel the aero- 
plane swiftly, and this led to increasing the diameter 
of the propeller to secure action on a proportionally 
larger area of air. The principle involved is simply 
the geometric rule that the areas of circles are to 
each other as the squares of their radii. Thus the 
surface of air acted on by two propellers, one of 6 
feet diameter and the other of 8 feet diameter, would 
be in the proportion of 9 to 16; and as the central 



210 FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS. 

part of a propeller has practically no thrust elTect, 
the efficiency of the 8-foot propeller is nearly twice 
that of the 6-foot propeller — other factors being 
equal. But these other factors may be made to vary 
widely. For instance^ the number of revolutions 
may be increased for the smaller propeller, thus en- 
gaging more air than the larger one at a lower speed ; 
and, in practice, it is possible to run a small pro- 
peller at a speed that would not be safe for a large 
one. Another factor is the pitch of the propeller, 
which may be described as the distance the hub of 
the propeller would advance in one complete revolu- 
tion if the blades moved in an unyielding medium, as 
a section of the thread of an ordinary bolt moves in 
its nut. In the yielding mass of the air the propeller 
advances only a part of its pitch, in some cases not 
more than half. The difference between the theo- 
retical advance and the actual advance is called the 
" slip.'' 

In practical work the number of blades which have 
been found to be most effective is two. More blades 
than two seem to so disturb the air that there is no 
hold for the propeller. In the case of slowly revolv- 
ing propellers, as in most airship mechanisms, four- 
bladed propellers are used with good effect. But 



FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS, 211 

where the diameter of the propeller is about 8 feet, 
and the number of revolutions about 1,200 per min- 
ute, the two-bladed type is used almost exclusively. 

The many differing forms of the blades of the 
propeller is evidence that the manufacturers have not 
decided upon any definite shape as being the best. 
Some have straight edges nearly or quite parallel ; 
others have the entering edge straight and the rear 
edge curved ; in others the entering edge is curved, 
and the rear edge straight ; or both edges may be 
curved. The majority of the wooden propellers are 
of the third-mentioned type, and the curve is fash- 
ioned so that at each section of its length the blade 
presents the same area of surface in the same time. 
Hence the outer tip, travelling the fastest, is nar- 
rower than the middle of the blade, and it is also 
much thinner to lessen the centrifugal force acting 
upon it at great speeds. Near the hub, however, 
where the travel is slowest, the constructional prob- 
lem demands that the blade contract in width and 
be made stout. In fact, it becomes almost round in 
section. 

Many propellers are made of metal, with tubular 
shanks and blades of sheet metal, the latter either 
solid sheets or formed with a double surface and hoi- 



212 FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS. 

low inside. Still others have a frame of metal with 
blades of fabric put on loosely, so that it may adapt 
itself to the pressure of the air in revolving. That 
great strength is requisite becomes plain when it is 
considered that the speed of the tip of a propeller 
blade often reaches seven miles a minute ! And at 
this velocity the centrifugal force excited — tending to 
tear the blades to splinters — is prodigious. 

Just as the curved surface of the planes of an 
aeroplane is more effective than a flat surface in 
compressing the air beneath them, and thus securing 
a firmer medium on which to glide, so the propeller 
blades are curved laterally (across their width) to 
compress the air behind them and thus secure a bet- 
ter hold. The advancing side of the blade is formed 
with a still greater curve, to gain the advantage due 
to the unexplained lift of the paradox aeroplane. 

Where the propeller is built of wood it is made of 
several layers, usually of different kinds of wood, 
with the grain running in slightly different direc- 
tions, and all carefully glued together into a solid 
block. Ash^ spruce, and mahogany, in alternating 
layers, are a favorite combination. In some in- 
stances the wooden propeller is sheathed in sheet 
aluminum; in others, it is well coated with glue 



h' f f: 



■■ I. 



Two propellers, the one on the left of left-hand pitch; the other of right-hand 
pitch. Both are thrusting propellers, and are viewed from the rear. 
These fine models are of the laminated type, and are of American make; 
the one to the left a Paragon propeller made in Washington, D. C; the 
other a Brauner propeller made in New York, 



214 FLYING MACHINES: MOTORS, 

which is sandpapered down very smooth, then var- 
nished, and then polished to the highest lustre — to 
reduce the effect of the viscosity of the air to the 
minimum. 

In order to get the best results, the propeller and 
the motor must be suited to each other. Some mo- 
tors which '' race " with a propeller which is slightly 
too small, work admirably with one a little heavier, 
or with a longer diameter. 

The question as to whether one propeller, or two, 
is the better practice, has not been decided. The 
majority of aeroplanes have but one. The Wright 
and the Cody machines have two. The certainty of 
serious consequences to a machine having two, 
should one of them be disabled, or even broken so 
as to reduce the area, seems to favor the use of but 
one. 



Chapter XI. 
MODEL FLYINQ MACHINES. 

Awakened popular interest — The workshop's share — Needed de- 
vices — Super-sensitive inventions — Unsolved problems — 
Tools and materials — A model biplane — The propeller — The 
body — The steering plane — The main planes — Assembling 
the parts — The motive power — Flying the model — A mono- 
plane model — Carving a propeller — Many ideas illustrated — 
Clubs and competitions — Some remarkable records. 

IT is related of Benjamin Franklin that when he 
went ont with his famous kite with the wire 
string, trying to collect electricity from the thn3ider- 
cloud, he took a boy along to forestall the ridicule that 
he knew would be meted out to him if he openly flew 
the kite himself. 

Other scientific experimenters, notably those work- 
ing upon the problem of human flight in our own 
time, have encountered a similar condition of the 
public mind, and have chosen to conduct their trials 
in secret rather than to contend with the derision, 
criticism, and loss of reputation which a sceptical 

world would have been quick to heap upon them. 

215 



216 MODEL FLYING MACHINES, 

But such a complete revolution of thought has been 
experienced in these latter days that groups of not- 
able scientific men gravely flying kites, or experi- 
menting with carefully made models of flying ma- 
chines, arouse only the deepest, interest, and their 
smallest discoveries are eagerly seized upon by the 
daily press as news of the first importance. 

So much remains to be learned in the field of 
aeronautics that no builder and flyer of the little 
model aeroplanes can fail to gain valuable informa- 
tion, if that is his intention. On the other hand, 
if it be the sport of racing these model aeroplanes 
which appeals to him, the instruction given in the 
pages following will be equally useful. 

The earnest student of aviation is reminded that 
the progressive work in this new art of flying is 
not being done altogether, nor even in large part, 
by the daring operators who, with superb courage, are 
performing such remarkable feats with the flying ma- 
chines of the present moment. Not one of them 
would claim that his machine is all that could be de- 
sired. On the contrary, these intrepid men more 
than any others are fully aware of the many and 
serious defects of the apparatus they use for lack of 
better. The scientific student in his workshop, pa- 



21S MODEL FLYING MACHINES, 

tiently^ experimenting with his models^ and working 
to prove or disprove nntested theories, is doubtless 
doing an invaluable part in bringing about the sort 
of flying which will be more truly profitable to hu 
manity in general, though less spectacular. 

One of the greatest needs of the present machines 
is an automatic balancer which shall supersede the 
concentrated attention which the operator is now 
compelled to exercise in order to keep his machine 
right side up. The discovery of the principle upon 
which such a balancer must be built is undoubtedly 
within the reach of the builder and flyer of models. 
It has been asserted by an eminent scientific experi- 
menter in things aeronautic that '' we cannot hope 
to make a sensitive apparatus quick enough to take 
advantage of the rising currents of the air/' etc. 
With due respect to the publicly expressed opinion 
of this investigator, it is well to reassure ourselves 
against so pessimistic an outlook by remembering 
that the construction of just such supersensitive 
apparatus is a task to which man has frequently 
applied his intellectual powers with signal success. 
Witness the photomicroscope, which records faith- 
fully an enlarged view of objects too minute to be 
even visible to the human eye; the aneroid barom- 



MODEL FLYING MACHINES, 



219 



etei% so sensitive that it will indicate the difference in 
level between the table and the floor ; the thermostat, 
which regnlates the temperature of the water flowing 
in the domestic heating system with a delicacy im- 
possible to the most highly constituted human organ- 
ism; the seismograph, detecting, recording, and 
almost locating earth tremors originating thousands 




Diagram showing turbulent air currents produced when a flat plane is forced 
through the air at a large angle of incidence in the direction A-B. 



of miles away ; the automatic fire sprinkler ; the 
safety-valve ; the recording thermometer and other 
meteorological instruments ; and last, if not of least 
importance, the common alarm-clock. And these are 
but a few of the contrivances with which man does 
by blind mechanism that which is impossible to his 
sentient determination. 

Even if the nervous system could be schooled into 



220 



MODEL FLYING MACHINES, 



endurance of the wear and tear of consciously bal- 
ancing an aeroplane for many hours, it is still im- 
perative that the task be not left to the exertion of 
human wits, but controlled by self-acting devices 
responding instantly to unforeseen conditions as they 
occur. 

Some of the problems of which the model-builder 
may find the solution are: whether large screws re- 




Diagram showing smoothly flowing air currents caused by correctly shaped 
plane at proper angle of incidence. 



volving slowly, or small screws revolving rapidly, 
are the more effective ; how many blades a propeller 
should have, and their most effective shape; what is 
the " perfect '' material for the planes (Maxim found 
that with a smooth wooden plane he could lift 2J 
times the weight that could be lifted with the best 
made fabric-covered plane) ; whether the centre of 



MODEL FLYING MACHINES. 221 

gravity of the aeroplane should be above or below 
the centre of lift^ or shonid coincide with it; new 
formulas for the correct expression of the lift in 
terms of the velocity, and angle of inclination— the 
former formulas having been proved erroneous by 
actual experience ; how to take the best advantage of 
the " tangential force '' announced by Lilienthal, and 
reasserted by Hargrave; and many others. And 
there is always the " paradox aeroplane '^ to be ex- 
plained—and when explained it will be no longer a 
paradox, but will doubtless open the way to the most 
surprising advance in the art of flying. 

It is not assumed that every reader of this chapter 
will become a studious experimenter, but it is un- 
questionably true that every model-builder, in his 
effort to produce winning machines, will be more 
than likely to discover some fact of value in the 
progress making toward the ultimate establishment 
of the commercial navigation of the air. 

The tools and materials requisite for the building 
of model aeroplanes are few and inexpensive. For 
the tools — a small hammer ; a small iron " block " 
plane ; a fine-cut half-round file ; a pair of round-nose 
pliers; three twist drills (as used for drilling metals), 
the largest y g inch diameter, and two smaller sizes, 



222 MODEL FLYING MACHINES. 

with an adjustable brad-awl handle to hold them; 
a sharp pocket knife; and^ if practicable, a small 
hand vise. The vise may be dispensed with, and 
common brad-awls may take the place of the drills, 
if necessary. 

For the first-described model — the simplest — the 
following materials are needed : some thin white- 
wood, iV inch thick (as prepared for fret-sawing) ; 
some sprnce sticks, ^ inch square (sky-rocket sticks 
are good) ; a sheet of heavy glazed paper ; a bottle of 
liquid glue; some of the smallest (in diameter) brass 
screws, ^ to ^ inch long ; some brass wire, 2V inch in 
diameter; 100 inches of square rubber (elastic) 
'' cord,'' such as is used on return-balls, but tV inch 
square; and a few strips of draughtsman's tracing 
cloth. 

As the propeller is the most difficult part to make, 
it is best to begin with it. The flat blank is cut out 
of the whitewood, and subjected to the action of 
steam issuing from the spout of an actively boiling 
tea-kettle. The steam must be hot ; mere vapor will 
not do the work. When the strip has become pliable, 
the shaping is done by slowly bending and twisting 
at the same time — perhaps " coaxing " would be the 
better word, for it must be done gently and with 





Blocks for. holding Propelled 

WHILE ORYtNG. 




t 



f % 



f 



~^' f 



Scale of inches. 



A, B, blank from which propeller 
is shaped; P, P, pencil lines at 
centre of bend; C, D, sections of 
blade at points opposite; E, G, pro- 
peller after twisting; H, view of 
propeller endwise, showing out- 
ward twist of tips; also shaft. 



224 MODEL FLYING MACHINES, 

patience^ — and the steam must be playing on the wood 
all the time, first on one side of the strip, then on 
the other, at the point where the fibres are being bent. 
The utmost care should be taken to have the two 
blades bent exactly alike — although, of course, with 
a contrary twist, the one to the right and the other to 
the left, on each side of the centre. A lead-pencil 
line across each blade at exactly the same distance 
from the centre will serve to fix accurately the centre 
of the bend. If two blocks are made with slots cut 
at the angle of 1 inch rise to 2J inches base, and 
nailed to the top of the work bench just far enough 
apart to allow the tips of the screw to be slid into the 
slots, the drying in perfect shape will be facilitated. 
The centre may be held to a true upright by two other 
blocks, one on each side of the centre. Some strips 
of whitewood may be so rigid that the steam will not 
make them sufficiently supple. In this case it may be 
necessary to dip them bodily into the boiling water, 
or even to leave them immersed for a few minutes; 
afterward bending them in the hot steam. But a 
wetted stick requires longer to dry and set in the screw 
shape. When the propeller is thoroughly dry and set 
in proper form, it should be worked into the finished 
shape with the half-round file, according to the sev- 



MODEL FLYING MACHINES. 225 

eral sections shown beside the elevation for each part 
of the blade. The two strengthening piece's are then 
to be glued on at the centre of the screw, and when 
thoroughly dry, worked down smoothly to shape. 
When all is dry and hard it should be smoothed with 
the finest emery cloth and given a coat of shellac var- 
nish, which, in turn, may be rubbed to a polish with 
rotten stone and oil. 

It may be remarked, in passing, that this is a crude 
method of making a propeller, and the result cannot 
be very good. It is given here because it is the easiest 
way, and the propeller will work. A much better 
way is described further on — and the better the pro- 
peller, the better any model will fly. But for a nov- 
ice, no time will be lost in making this one, for the 
experience gained will enable the model-builder to 
do better work with the second one than he could do 
without it. 

For the aeroplane body we get out a straight spar 
of spruce, ^ inch square and 15^ inches long. At the 
front end of this — on the upper side — is to be glued 
a small triangular piece of wood to serve as a sup- 
port for the forward or steering plane, tilting it up 
at the front edge at the angle represented by a rise 
of 1 in 8. This block should be shaped on its upper 



226 MODEL FLYING MACHINE^, 

side to fit the curve of the under side of the steering- 
plane^ which will be screwed to it. 

The steering-plane is cut according to plan, out 
of T6 inch whitewoodj planed down gradually to be 
at the ends about half that thickness. This plane is 
to be steamed and bent to a curve (fore and aft) as 
shown in the sectional view. The steam should play 
on the convex side of the bend while it is being 
shaped. To hold it in proper form until it is set, 
blocks with curved slots may be used, or it may be 
bound with thread to a moulding block of equal 
length formed to the proper curve. When thor- 
oughly dry it is to be smoothed with the emery cloth, 
and a strip of tracing cloth — glossy face out — is to 
be glued across each end, to prevent breaking in case 
of a fall. It is then to be varnished with shellac, 
and polished, as directed for the propeller. Indeed, it 
should be said once for all that every part of the 
model should be as glossy as it is possible to make 
it without adding to the weight, and that all '^ enter- 
ing edges '' (those which push into and divide the air 
when in flight) should be as sharp as is practicable 
with the material used. 

The steering-plane is to be fastened in place by 
a single screw long enough to pierce the plane and 



MODEL FLYING MACHINES. 227 

the supporting block, and enter the spar. The hole 
for this screw (as for all screws nsed) should be 
drilled carefully, to avoid the least splitting of the 
wood, and just large enough to have the screw '' bite " 
without forcing its way in. This screw which holds 
the plane is to be screwed " home/' but not too tight, 
so that in case the flying model should strike upon 
it in falling, the slender plane will swivel, and not 
break. It will be noticed that while this screw passes 
through the centre of the plane sideways, it is nearer 
to the forward edge than to the rear edge. 

If the work has been accurate, the plane will bal- 
ance if the spar is supported — upon the finger, per- 
haps, as that is sensitive to any tendency to tipping. 
If either wing is too heavy, restore the balance by 
filing a little from the tip of that wing. 

The main planes are next to be made. The lower 
deck of the biplane is of the y e" inch whitewood, and 
the upper one is of the glazed paper upon a skeleton 
framework of wood. The upright walls are of paper. 
The wooden deck is to be bent into the proper curve 
with the aid of steam, and when dry and set in form 
is to be finished and polished. The frame for the 
upper deck is made of the thin whitewood, and is 
held to its position by two diagonal struts of white- 



228 MODEL FLYING MACHINES, 

wood bent at the ends with steam, and two straight 
upright struts or posts. It is better to bend all cross- 
pieces into the curve of the plane with steam, but 
they may be worked into the curve on the top side 
with plane and file, and left flat on the lower side. 
The drawings show full details of the construction, 
drawn accurately to scale. 

It is best to glue all joints, and in addition to in- 
sert tiny screws, where shown in the plans, at the time 
of gluing. 

When all the w^ooden parts are in place the entire 
outline of the upper plane and the upright walls is 
to be formed of silk thread carried from point to 
point, and tied upon very small pins (such as are 
used in rolls of ribbon at the stores) inserted in the 
w^ood. The glazed paper is put on double, glossy 
side out. Cut the pieces twice as large (and a trifle 
more) than is needed, and fold so that the smooth 
crease comes to the front and the cut edges come to- 
gether at the rear. The two inner walls should be 
put in place first, so as to enclose the thread front 
and back, and the post, between the two leaves of the 
folded paper. Cutting the paper half an inch too 
long will give one fourth of an inch to turn flat top 
and bottom to fasten to the upper and lower decks 



230 MODEL FLYING MACHINES, 

respectively. The two outer walls and the upper deck 
may be cut all in one piece, the under leaf being slit 
to pass on either side of the inner walls. A bit of 
glue here and there will steady the parts to their 
places. The cut edges at the rear of the deck and 
walls should be caught together with a thin film of 
glue, so as to enclose the rear threads. 

When the biplane is completed it is to be fastened 
securely to the spar in such a position that it is ac- 
curately balanced — from side to side. The spar may 
be laid on a table, and the biplane placed across it 
in its approximate position. Then move the plane to 
one side until it tips down, and mark the spot on the 
rear edge of the plane. Repeat this operation toward 
the other side, and the centre between the two marks 
should be accurately fastened over the centre line of 
the spar. Even with the greatest care there may still 
be failure to balance exactly, but a little work with a 
file on the heavy side, or a bit of chewing gum stuck 
on the lighter side, will remedy the matter. 

The body of the aeroplane being now built, it is 
in order to fit it with propelling mechanism. The 
motive power to whirl the propeller we have already 
prepared is to be the torsion, or twisting strain — in 
this case the force of untwisting — of india rubber. 



MODEL FLYING MACHINES, 231 

When several strands of pure rubber cord are twisted 
up tight, their elasticity tends to untwist them with 
considerable force. The attachment for the rubber 
strands at the front end of the spar is a sort of bracket 
made of the brass wire. The ends of the wire are 
turned up just a little, and they are set into little 
holes in the under side of the spar. Where the wire 
turns downward to form the hook it is bound tightly 
to the spar with silk thread. The hook-shaped tip is 
formed of the loop of the wire doubled upon itself. 
The rear attachment of the rubber strands is a loop 
upon the propeller shaft itself. As shown in the 
drawings, this shaft is but a piece of the brass wire. 
On one end (the rear) an open loop is formed, and 
into this is slipped the centre of the propeller. The 
short end of the loop is then twisted around the 
longer shank — very carefully, lest the wire cut into 
and destroy the propeller. Two turns of the wire is 
enough, and then the tip of the twisted end should 
be worked down flat with the file, to serve as a bear- 
ing for the propeller against the thrust-block. This 
latter is made of a piece of sheet brass (a bit of 
printers' brass " rule " is just the thing) about iV 
of an inch thick. It should be ^ of an inch wide 
except at the forward end, where it is to be filed to a 



232 MODEL FLYING MACHINES. 

long point and bent up a trifle to enter the wood of 
the spar. The rear end is bent down (not too sharply, 
lest it break) to form the bearing for the propeller, 
a hole being drilled through it for the propeller shaft, 
just large enough for the shaft to turn freely in it 
Another smaller hole is to be drilled for a little screw 
to enter the rear end of the spar. Next pass the 
straight end of the propeller shaft through the hole 
drilled for it, and with the pliers form a round hook 
for the rear attachment of the rubber strands. Screw 
the brass bearing into place, and for additional 
strength, wind a binding of silk thread around it 
and the spar. 

Tie the ends of the rubber cord together, divide it 
into ten even strands, and pass the loops over the two 
hooks — and the machine is ready for flight. 

To wind up the rubber it will be necessary to turn 
the propeller in the opposite direction to which it 
will move when the model is flying. About 100 turns 
will be required. After it is wound, hold the ma- 
chine by the rear end of the spar, letting the propeller 
press against the hand so it cannot unwind. Raise 
it slightly above the head, holding the spar level, 
or inclined upward a little (as experience may dic- 
tate), and launch the model by a gentle throw for- 



MODEL FLYING MACHINES, 233 

ward. If the work has been well done it may fly 
from 150 to 200 feet. 

Many experiments may be made with this machine. 
If it flies too high, weight the front end of the spar ; 
if too loWj gliding downward from the start, weight 
the rear end. A bit of chewing gum may be enough 
to cause it to ride level and make a longer and pret- 
tier flight. 

A very graceful model is that of the monoplane 
type illustrated in the accompanying reproductions 
from photographs. The front view shows the little 
machine just ready to take flight from a table. The 
view from the rear is a snap-shot taken while it was 
actually flying. This successful model was made by 
Harold S. Lynn, of Stamford, Conn. Before dis- 
cussing the details of construction, let us notice some 
peculiar features shown by the photographs. The 
forward plane is arched ; that is, the tips of the plane 
bend slightly downward from the centre. On the 
contrary, the two wings of the rear plane bend slight- 
ly upward from the centre, making a dihedral angle, 
as it is called ; that is, an angle between two surfaces, 
as distinguished from an angle between two lines. 
The toy wheels, Mr. Lynn says, are put on princi- 
pally for " looks," but they are also useful in per- 



234 



MODEL FLYING MACHINES. 



mitting a start to be made from a table or even from 
the floor, instead of the usual way of holding the 
model in the hands and giving it a slight throw 
to get it started. However, the wheels add to the 




Front view of the Lynn model of the monoplane type, about to take flight. 



weight, and the model will not fly quite so far with 
them as without. 

The wood from which this model was made was 
taken from a bamboo fish-pole, such as may be 
bought anywhere for a dime. The pole was split 



MODEL FLYING MACHINES. 



235 



up, and the suitable pieces whittled and planed down 
to the proper sizes, as given in the plans. In putting 
the framework of the planes together, it is well to 
notch very slightly each rib and spar where they 




The Lynn model monoplane in flight, from below and from the rear. 



cross. Touch the joint with a bit of liquid glue, and 
wind quickly with a few turns of sewing silk and tie 
tightly. This must be done with delicacy, or the 
frames will be out of true. If the work is done rap- 
idly the glue will not set until all the ties on the 



236 MODEL FLYING MACHINES. 

plane are finished. Another way is to touch the join- 
ings with a drop of glue, place the ribs in position 
on the spars, and lay a board carefully on the work, 
leaving it there until all is dry, when the tying can be 
done. It either case the joinings should be touched 
again with the liquid glue and allowed to dry hard. 

The best material for covering these frames is the 
thinnest of China silk. If this is too expensive, use 
the thinnest cambric. But the model will not fly so 
far with the cambric covering. The material is cut 
one-fourth of an inch too large on every side, and 
folded over, and the fold glued down. Care should 
be taken that the frame is square and true before the 
covering is glued on. 

The motive power is produced by twisting up rub- 
ber tubing. Five and three-quarter feet of pure rub- 
ber tubing are required. It is tied together with silk 
so as to form a continuous ring. This is looped over 
two screw-hooks of brass, one in the rear block and 
the other constituting the shaft. This looped tubing 
is twisted by turning the propeller backward about 
two hundred turns. As it untwists it turns the pro- 
peller, which, in this model, is a " traction " screw, 
and pulls the machine after it as it advances through 
the air. 









i' 












SPAR. 














i 








■[- H 


•^ 


9" 




FINE 


wtfi£: 





MAIN PL/\N£ 





i". 



FROhJT v»e"w 



E> 



^ 2 



TAIL 



f Z 3 A S 6 



Scale-inches 



Details and plans of the Harold Lynn model monoplane. W, tail block; Y, 
thrust-block; S, mounting of propeller showing glass bead next the thrust- 
block, and one leather washer outside the screw; B, glass bead; C, tin 
washer; M, M, tin lugs holding axle of wheels. 



238 



MODEL FLYING MACHINES, 



The propeller in this instance is formed from a 
piece of very thin tin^ snch as is used for the tops of 
cans containing condensed milk. Reference to the 
many illustrations throughout this book showing pro- 
pellers of flying machines will give one a very good 
idea of the proper wav to bend the blades. The 





Method of forming propeller of th3 laminated, or layer, type. The layers 
of wood are glued in the position shown and the blades carved out accord- 
ing to the sections. Only one blade is shown from the axle to the tip. 
This will make a right hand propeller. 



mounting with the glass bead and the two leather 
washers is shown in detail in the plans. 

The wheels are taken from a toy wagon, and a 
pair of tin ears will serve as bearings for the axle. 

The sport of flying model aeroplanes has led to the 
formation of many clubs in this country as well as 
in Europe. Some of the mechanisms that have been 



CLASS 
BEAD 



3S^ 



S«ASS 



£v 



1 




^j>asss3g3ygwx^^ 



X^ro30;S33»SS3W3»^^ 



\A^ 




D 



F T 



Ao A is shown a method of mounting the propeller with a glass or china bead to 
reduce friction, and a brass corner to aid in strengthening. B shows a 
transmission of power by two spur wheels and chain. C is a device for 
using two rubber twists acting on the two spur wheels S, S, which in turn are 
connected with the propeller with a chain drive. D shows a launching 
apparatus for starting. W, the model; V, the carriage; F, the trigger 
guard; T, trigger; E, elastic cord for throwing the carriage forward to 
the stop K. 



240 MODEL FLYING MACHINES. 

devised^ and some of the contrivances to make the 
models fly better and further, are illustrated in the 
drawings. 

Records have been made which seem marvellous 
when it is considered that 200 feet is a very good 
flight for a model propelled by rubber. For instance, 
at the contest of the Birmingham Aero Club (Eng- 
land) in September, one of the contestants won the 
prize with a flight of 447 feet, lasting 48 seconds. 
The next best records for duration of flight w^ere 39 
seconds and 38 seconds. A model aeroplane which 
is " guaranteed to fly 1,000 feet,'' according to the 
advertisement in an English magazine, is offered for 
sale at $15. 

The American record for length of flight is held 
by Mr. Frank Schober, of New York, with a dis- 
tance of 215 feet 6 inches. His model was of the 
Langley type of tandem monoplane, and very highly 
flnished. The problem is largely one of adequate 
power without serious increase of weight. 



Chapter XII. 
THE GLIDER. 

Aerial balancing — Practice necessary — Simplicity of the glider 
Materials — Construction — Gliding — Feats with the Mont- 
gomery glider — Noted experimenters — Glider clubs. 

IT is a matter of record that the Wright brothers 
spent the better part of three years among the 
sand dunes of the North Carolina sea-coast practising 
with gliders. In this way they acquired that confi- 
dence while in the air which comes from intimate ac- 
quaintance v/ith its peculiarities, and which cannot be 
gained in any other way. It is true that the Wrights 
were then developing not only themselves, but also 
their gliders ; but the latter work was done once for 
all. To develop aviators, however, means the re- 
peating of the same process for each individual — just 
as each for himself must be taught to read. And the 
glider is the " First Reader '' in aeronautics. 

The long trail of wrecks of costly aeroplanes mark- 
ing the progress in the art of flying marks also the 

*241 



242 THE GLIDER. 

lack of preparatory training, which their owners 
either thonght unnecessary, or hoped to escape by 
some royal road less wearisome than persistent per- 
sonal practice. But they all paid dearly to discover 
that there is no royal road. Practice, more practice, 
and still more practice — that is the secret of success- 
ful aeroplane flight. 

For this purpose the glider is much superior to 
the power-driven aeroplane. There are no controls 
to learn, no mechanism to manipulate. One simply 
launches into the air, and concentrates his efforts 
upon balancing himself and the apparatus ; not as two 
distinct bodies, however, but as a united whole. When 
practice has made perfect the ability to balance the 
glider instinctively, nine-tenths of the art of flying 
an aeroplane has been achieved. Not only this, but 
a new sport has been laid under contribution; one 
beside which coasting upon a snow-clad hillside is a 
crude form of enjoyment. 

Fortunately for the multitude, a glider is easily 
made, and its cost is even less than that of a bicycle. 
A modest degree of skill with a few carpenter's tools, 
and a little " gumption " about odd jobs in general, 
is all that is required of the glider builder. 

The frame of the glider is of wood, and spruce is 




? 
^ 



244 THE GLIDER. 

recommended, as it is stronger and tougher for its 
weight than other woods. It should be of straight 
grain and free from knots ; and as there is consider- 
able difference in the weight of spruce from different 
trees, it is well to go over the pile in the lumber yard 
and pick out the lightest boards. Have them planed 
down smooth on both sides, and to the required thick- 
ness, at the mill — it will save much toilsome hand 
work. The separate parts may also be sawed out at 
the mill, if one desires to avoid this labor. 
The lumber needed is as follows : 

4 spars 20 ft. long, 1 J in. wide, | in. thick. 

12 struts 3 ft. long, IJ in. wide, f in. thick. 

2 rudder bars 8 ft. long, f in. wide, i in. thick. 

12 posts 4 ft. long, 1^- in. wide, ^ in. thick. 

41 ribs 4 ft. long, ^ in. wide, f in. thick. 

2 arm rests 4 ft. long, 2 in. wide, 1 in. thick. 

For rudder frame. 24 running ft., 1 in. wide, 1 in. thick. 

If it be impossible to find clear spruce lumber 20 
feet in length, the spars may be built up by splicing 
two 10-foot sticks together. For this purpose, the 
splicing stick should be as heavy as the single spar — 
1^ inches wide, and f inches thick — and at least 4 feet 
long, and be bolted fast to the spar with six ^ inch 
round-head carriage bolts with washers of large bear- 
ing surface (that is, a small hole to fit the bolt, and a 



THE GLIDER. 



245 



large outer diameter) at both ends of the bolt, to pre- 
vent crushing the wood. A layer of liquid glue 
brushed between will help to make the joint firmer. 
Wherever a bolt is put in, a hole should be bored 
for it with a bit of such size that the bolt will fit 






Otto Lilienthal in his single-plane glider. The swinging forward of his feet 
tends to turn the glider toward the ground, and increase its speed. 

snug in the hole without straining the grain of the 
wood. 

The corners of the finished spar are to be rounded 
off on a large curvature, 



246 THE GLIDER, 

The ends of the struts are to be cut down on a 

• slight slant of about tV iiich in the 1^ inches that 

it laps under the spar — with the idea of tipping the 

top of the spar forward so that the ribs will spring 

naturally from it into the proper curve. 

The ribs should be bent by steaming^ and allowed 
to dry and set in a form^ or between blocks nailed 
upon the floor to the line of the correct curve. They 
are then nailed to the frames, the front end first: 
21 to the frame of the upper plane, and 20 to that 
of the lower plane, omitting one at the centre, where 
the arm pieces will be placed. 

Some builders tack the ribs lightly into place with 
small brads, and screw clamps formed from sheet 
brass or aluminum over them. Others use copper 
nails and clinch them over washers on the under side. 
Both methods are shown in the plans, but the clamps 
are recommended as giving greater stiffness, an essen- 
tial feature. 

At the front edge of the frames the ribs are fas- 
tened flush, and being 4 feet long and the frame but 
3 feet wide, they project over the rear about 1 foot. 

The arm pieces are bolted to the spars of the lower 
frame 6^ inches on each side of the centre, so as to 
allow a free space of 13 inches between them. This 




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0) 

-a 



O 



c3 



248 THE GLIDER, 

opening may be made wider to accommodate a stouter 
person. 

The posts are then put into place and bolted to 
the struts and the spars, as shown, with ^-inch bolts. 

The entire structure is then to be braced diagonally 
with No. 16 piano wire. The greatest care must be 
taken to have these diagonals pull just taut, so that 
they shall not warp the lines of the frames out of true. 
A crooked frame will not fly straight, and is a source 
of danger when making a landing. 

The frames are now to be covered. There is a 
special balloon cloth made which is best for the pur- 
pose, but if that cannot be procured, strong cambric 
muslin will answer. Thirty yards of goods 1 yard 
wide will be required for the planes and the rudder. 
From the piece cut off 7 lengths for each plane, 
4 feet 6 inches long. These are to be sewed together, 
selvage to selvage, so as to make a sheet about 19 
feet 6 inches long and 4 feet 6 inches wide. As this 
is to be tacked to the frame, the edges must be double- 
hemmed to make them strong enough to resist tearing 
out at the tacks. Half an inch is first folded down 
all around : the fold is then turned back on the goods 
^^ inches and sewed. This hem is then folded back 
1 inch upon itself, and again stitched. Strips 3 



THE GLIDER. 249 

inches wide and a little over 4 feet long are folded 
" three-double " into a Avidth of 1 inch, and sewed 
along both edges to the large sheet exactly over where 
the ribs come. These are to strengthen the fabric 
where the ribs press against it. Sixteen-onnce tacks 
are used, being driven throngh a felt washer the size 
of a gun wad at intervals of fonr inches. If felt is 
not readily obtainable, common felt gnn w^ads will do. 
The tacking is best begnn at the middle of the frame, 
having folded the cloth there to get the centre. Then 
stretch smoothly ont to the fonr corners and tack at 
each. It may then be necessary to loosen the two 
centre tacks and place them over again, to get rid of 
wrinkles. The next tacks to drive are at the ends 
of the stmts; then haff -way between; and so on until 
all are in, and the sheet is taut and smooth. For 
a finer finish, brass round-head upholsterer's nails 
may be used. 

The rudder, so-called, is rather a tail, for it is not 
movable and does not steer the glider. It does steady 
the machine, however, and is very important in pre- 
serving the equilibrium when in flight. It is formed 
of two small planes intersecting each other at right 
angles and covered on both sides with the cloth, the 
sections covering the vertical part being cut along 



250 



THE GLIDER, 



the centre and hemmed on to the npper and lower 
faces of the horizontal part. The frame for the ver- 
tical part is fastened to the two rudder bars which 
stretch out toward the rear, one from the upper 




Lilienthal in his double-deck glider. It proved unmanageable and fell, causing 
his death. The hill is an artificial one built for his own use in experimenting. 



plane, and the other from the lower. The whole con- 
struction is steadied by guys of the piano wire. 

All wooden parts should be smoothed off with sand- 
paper, and given a coat of shellac varnish. 

To make a glide, tlie machine is taken to^an ele- 




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o ^^ 

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C m 

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-£3 ^ 
m ^ 



252 THE GLIDER, 

vated point on a slope, not far up to begin with. 
Lift the glider, get in between the arm rests, and 
raise the apparatus until the rests are snug under 
the arms. Run swiftly for a few yards and leap 
into the air, holding the front of the planes slightly 
elevated. If the weight of the body is in the right 
position, and the speed sufficient, the glider will take 
the air and sail with you down the slope. It may be 
necessary at first to have the help of two assistants, 
one at each end, to run with the glider for a good 
start. 

The position of the body on the arm rests can best 
be learned by a few experiments. No two gliders are 
quite alike in this respect, and no rule can be given. 
As to the requisite speed, it must be between 15 and 
20 miles an hour ; and as this speed is impossible to 
a man running, it is gained by gliding against the 
wind, and thus adding the speed of the wind to the 
speed of the runner. The Wrights selected the sand 
dunes of the North Carolina coast for their glider 
experiments because of the steady winds that blow 
in from the ocean, across the land. These winds 
gave them the necessary speed of air upon which to 
sail their gliders. 

The first flights attempted should be short, and 



THE GLIDER. 253 

as experience is gained longer ones may be es- 
sayed. 

Balancing the glider from side to side is accom- 
plished by swaying the lower part of the body like a 
pendulum, the weight to go toward the side which 
has risen. Swinging the body forward on the arm 
rests wall cause the machine to dip the planes and 
glide more swiftly down the incline. Holding the 
weight of the body back in the arm rests will cause 
the machine to fly on a higher path and at a slower 
speed. This is objectionable because the glider is 
more manageable at a higher speedy and therefore 
safer. The tendency at first is to place the weight 
too far back, with a consequent loss of velocity, and 
with that a proportionate loss of control. The proper 
position of the body is slightly forward of the me- 
chanical centre of the machine. 

The landing is accomplished by shoving the body 
backward, thus tilting up the front of the plane. 
This checks the speed, and when the feet touch the 
ground a little run, while holding back, will bring 
the glide to an end. Landing should be practised 
often with brief glides until skill is gained, for it is 
the most difficult operation in gliding. 

After one becomes expert, longer flights may be 



254 



THE GLIDER. 



secured by going to higher points for the start. From 
an elevation of 300 feet a glide of 1,200 feet is pos- 
sible. 

While it is necessary to make glides against the 
wind, it is not wise to attempt flights when the wind 




,aSi''^^^'"'' 



ill 




Gliding with a Chanute three-decker. A start with two assistants. 



blows harder than 10 miles an hour. While the 
flight may be successful, the landing may be dis- 
astrous. 

The accomplished glider operator is in line for 
the aeroplane, and it is safe to say that he will not 



THE GLIDER, 255 

be long without one. The skilful and practised op- 
erator of a glider makes the very best aeroplane 
pilot. 

This chapter would not be complete without an 
adequate reference to the gliders devised by Professor 
Montgomery of Santa Clara, California. These ma- 
chines were sent up with ordinary hot-air balloons 
to various heights, reaching 4,000 feet in some in- 
stances, when they w^ere cut loose and allowed to 
descend in a long glide, guided by their pilots. The 
time of the descent from the highest altitude was 
twenty minutes, during which the glider travelled 
about eight miles. The landing was made accurately 
upon a designated spot, and so gently that there was 
no perceptible jar. Two of the pilots turned com- 
pletely over sideways, the machine righting itself 
after the somersault and continuing its regular course. 
Professor Montgomery has made the assertion that 
he can fasten a bag of sand weighing 150 lbs. in the 
driver's seat of his glider, and send it up tied up- 
side down under a balloon, and that after being cut 
loose, the machine will right itself and come safely 
to the ground without any steering. 

Lilienthal in Germany, Pilcher in England, and 
Chanute in the United States are names eminent in 



256 THE GLIDER. 

connection with the experiments with gliders which 
have been productive of discoveries of the greatest 
importance to the progress of aviation. The illus- 
tration of the Chanute glider shows its peculiarities 
plainly enough to enable any one to comprehend 
them. 

The establishment of glider clubs in several parts 
of the country has created a demand for ready-made 
machines, so that an enthusiast who does not wish 
to build his own machine may purchase it ready 
made. 



Chapter XIII. 
BALLOONS. 

First air vehicle — Principle of Archimedes — Why balloons rise 
— Inflating gases — Early history — The Montgolfiers — The 
hot-air balloon — Charles's hydrogen balloon — Pilatre de 
Rozier — The first aeronaut — The first balloon voyage — ■ 
Blanchard and Jeffries — Crossing the English Channel — - 
First English ascensions — Notable voyages — Recent long- • 
distance journeys and high ascensions — Prize balloon 
races — A fascinating sport — Some impressions, adventures, 
and hardships — Accident record — Increasing interest in 
ballooning. 

THE balloon, though the earliest and crudest 
means of getting up in the air, has not be- 
come obsolete. It has been in existence practically 
in its present general form for upwards of 500 years. 
Appliances have been added from time to time, but 
the big gas envelope enclosing a volume of some gas 
lighter than an equal volume of air, and the basket, 
or car, suspended below it, remain as the typical form 
of aerial vehicle Avhich has not changed since it was 
first devised in times so remote as to lie outside the 
boundaries of recorded history. 

257 



258 BALLOONS. 

The common shape of the gas bag of a balloon is 
that of the sphere, or sometimes of an inverted pear. 
It is allowed to rise and float away in the air as the 
prevailing wind may carry it. Attempts have been 
made to steer it in a desired direction, but they 
did not accomplish much until the gas bag was made 
long horizontally, in proportion to its height and 
Avidth. With a drag-rope trailing behind on the 
ground from the rear end of the gas bag, and sails 
on the forward end, it was possible to guide the 
elongated balloon to some extent in a determined 
direction. 

In explaining why a balloon rises in the air, it is 
customary to quote the '^ principle of Archimedes,'^ 
discovered and formulated by that famous philos- 
opher centuries before the Christian era. Briefly 
stated, it is this : Every body immersed in a fluid is 
acted upon by a force pressing upward, which is 
equal to the weight of the amount of the fluid dis- 
placed by the immersed body. 

It remained for Sir Isaac Newton to explain the 
principle of Archimedes (by the discovery of the law 
of gravitation), and to show that the reason why the 
immersed body is apparently pushed upward, is that 
the displaced fluid is attracted downward. In the 



BALLOONS. 259 

case of a submerged bag of a gas lighter than air, 
the amount of force acting on the surrounding air 
is greater than that acting on the gas, and the latter 
is simply crowded out of the way by the descending 
air, and forced up to a higher level where its lighter 
bulk is balanced by the gravity acting upon it. 

The fluid in which the balloon is immersed is the 
air. The force with which the air crowds down 
around and under the balloon is its weight — weight 
being the measure of the attraction which gravity 
exerts upon any substance. 

The weight of air at a temperature of 32° Fahr., 
at the normal barometer pressure at the sea-level 
(29.92 inches of mercury), is 0.0807 lbs. per cubic 
foot. The gas used to fill a balloon must therefore 
weigh less than this, bulk for bulk, in order to be 
crowded upward by the heavier air — and thus exert 
its '' lifting power," as it is commonly called. 

In practice, two gases have been used for inflating 
balloons — hydrogen, and illuminating gas, made or- 
dinarily from coal, and called '' coal gas." Hydro- 
gen is the lightest substance known; that is, it is 
attracted less by gravity than any other known sub- 
stance, in proportion to its bulk. 

A cubic foot of hydrogen weighs but 0.0056 lbs., 




/ 



One of the otirliost :it(onips to steer Ji sph(M-ie:il bnllooii by retarding its 
sp(H>fl with thr (lrao;-r()pe, and adjusting (he sail to (he passing wind. 



BALLOONS. 261 

and it Avill therefore be pushed upward in air by 
the difference in weight, or 0.0751 lbs. per cubic foot. 
A cubic foot of coal gas weighs about 0,0400 lbs., and 
is crowded upward in air with a force of 0.0407 lbs. 




:^ait^*?^, 



Apparatus to illustrate the principle of Archimedes. At the left, the small 
solid glass ball and large hollow glass sphere are balanced in the free air. 
When the balance is moved under the bell-glass of the air pump (at the 
right), and the air exhausted, the large sphere drops, showing that its 
previous balance was due to the upward pressure of the air, greater 
because of its larger bulk. 

It is readily seen that a very large bulk of hydro- 
gen must be used if any considerable weight is to be 
lifted. For to the weight of the gas must be added 
the weight of the containing bag, the car, and the 
network supporting it, the ballast, instruments, and 



262 BALLOONS. 

passengers^ and there must still be enongli more to 
afford elevating power sufficient to raise the entire 
load to the desired lev^l. 

Let ns assume that Ave have a balloon with a vol- 
ume of 20,000 cubic feet, which weighs Avith its 
appurtenances 500 pounds. The hydrogen it would 
contain would weigh about 112 pounds, and the 
weight of the air it would displace would be about 
1,620 pounds. The total available lifting power 
would be about 1,000 pounds. If a long-distance 
journey is to be undertaken at a comparatively low 
level, this will be sufficient to carry the necessary 
ballast, and a few passengers. If, however, it is in- 
tended to rise to a great height, the problem is dif- 
ferent. The weight of the air, and consequently its 
lifting pressure, decreases as we go upwards. If the 
balloon has not been entirely filled, the gas wdll ex- 
pand as the pressure is reduced in the higher alti- 
tude. This has the effect of carrying the balloon 
higher. Heating of the contained gas by the sun will 
also cause a rise. On the other hand, the diffusion 
of the gas through the envelope into the air, and the 
penetration of air into the gas bag will produce a 
mixture heavier than hydrogen, and will cause the 
balloon to descend. The extreme cold of the upper 



BALLOONS. 263 

air has the same effect^ as it tends to condense to a 
smaller bulk the gas in the balloon. To check a 
descent the load carried by the gas must be lightened 
by throwing out some of the ballast, which is carried 
simply for this purpose. Finally a level is reached 
where equilibrium is established, and above which 
it is impossible to rise. 

The earliest recorded ascent of a balloon is cred- 
ited to the Chinese^ on the occasion of the corona- 
tion of the Emperor Fo-Kien at Pekin in the year 
1306. If this may be called historical, it gives evi- 
dence also that it speedily became a lost art. The 
next really historic record belongs in the latter part 
of the seventeenth century, when Cyrano de Bergerac 
attempted to fly wdth the aid of bags of air attached 
to his person, expecting them to be so expanded by 
the heat of the sun as to rise with sufficient force to 
lift him. He did not succeed, but his idea is plainly 
the forerunner of the hot-air balloon. 

In the same century Francisco de Lana, who was 
clearly a man of much intelligence and keen reason- 
ing ability, having determined by experiment that the 
atmosphere had weight, decided that he would be able 
to rise into the air in a ship lifted .by four metal 
spheres 20 feet in diameter from which the air had 



264 BALLOONS. 

been exhausted. After several failures he abandoned 
his efforts upon the religious grounds that the 
Almighty doubtless did not approve such an overr 
turning in the affairs of mankind as would follow 
the attainment of the art of flying. 

In 1757, Galen, a French monk, published a book, 
'' The Art of Navigating in the Air,'' in which he 
advocated filling the body of the airship with air 
secured at a great height above the sea-level, where 
it was " a thousand times lighter than water." He 
showed by mathematical computations that the up- 
ward impulse of this air would be sufficient to lift a 
heavy load. He planned in detail a great airship to 
carry 4,000,000 persons and several million pack- 
ages of goods. Though it may have accomplished 
nothing more, this book is believed to have been the 
chief source of inspiration to the Montgolfiers. 

The discovery of hydrogen by Cavendish in 1776 
gave Dr. Black the opportunity of suggesting that it 
be used to inflate a large bag and so lift a heavy load 
into the air. Although he made no attempt to con- 
struct such an apparatus, he afterward claimed that 
through this suggestion he was entitled to be called 
the real inventor of the balloon. 

This is the meagre historical record preceding the 



BALLOONS. 265 

achievements of the brothers Stephen and Joseph 
Montgoliier, which marked distinctly the beginning 
of practical aeronautics. Both of these men were 
highly educated, and they were experienced workers 
in their father's paper factory. Joseph had made 
some parachute drops from the roof of his house as 
early as 1771. 

After many experiments with steam, smoke, and 
hydrogen gas, with wdiich they tried ineffectually to 
inflate large paper bags, they finally succeeded with 
heated air, and on June 5, 1783, they sent up a 
great paper hot-air balloon, 35 feet in diameter. 
It rose to a height of 1,000 feet, but soon came to 
earth again upon cooling. It appears that the Mont- 
golfiers were wholly ignorant of the fact that it 
was the rarefying of the air by heating that caused 
their balloon to rise, and they made no attempt 
to keep it hot while the balloon was in the air. 

About the same time the French scientist, M. 
Charles, decided that hydrogen gas would be better 
than hot air to inflate balloons. Finding that this 
gas passed readily through paper, he used silk coated 
with a varnish made by dissolving rubber. His bal- 
loon was 13 feet in diameter, and weighed about 
20 pounds. It was sent up from the Champ de 



266 



BALLOONS, 



Mars on August 29, 1783, amidst the booming of 
cannon, in the presence of 300,000 spectators who 
assembled despite a heavy rain. It rose swiftly, dis- 








An early Montgolfier balloon. 



appearing among the clouds, and soon burst from 
the expansion of the gas in the higher and rarer at- 
mosphere — no allowance having been made for this 



BALLOONS. 267 

unforeseen result. It fell in a rural region near Paris, 
where it was totally destroyed by the inhabitants, who 
believed it to be some hideous form of the devil. 

The Montgolfiers had already come to Paris, and 
had constructed a balloon of linen and paper. Be- 
fore they had opportunity of sending it up it was 
ruined by a rainstorm with a high wind. They im- 
mediately built another of waterproof linen which 
made a successful ascension on September 19, 1783, 
taking as passengers a sheep, a cock^ and a duck. 
The balloon came safely to earth after being up eight 
minutes — falling in consequence of a leak in the air- 
bag near the top. The passengers were examined 
with great interest. The sheep and the duck seemed 
in the same excellent condition as when they went 
up, but the cock was evidently ailing. A consulta- 
tion of scientists was held and it was the consensus 
of opinion that the fowl could not endure breathing 
the rarer air of the high altitude. At this juncture 
some one discovered that the cock had been trodden 
upon by the sheep, and the consultation closed 
abruptly. 

The Montgolfier brothers were loaded with hon- 
ors, Stephen receiving the larger portion; and the 
people of Paris entered enthusiastically into the sport 



268 BALLOONS. 

of making and flying small balloons of the Mont- 
golfier type. 

Stephen began work at once upon a larger balloon 
intended to carry human passengers. It was fifty 
feet in diameter, and 85 feet high, with a capacity 
of 100,000 cubic feet. The car for the passengers 
was swung below from cords in the fashion that has 
since become so familiar. 

In the meantime Pilatre de Eozier had constructed 
a balloon on the hot-air principle, but with an ar- 
rangement to keep the air heated by a continuous 
fire in a pan under the mouth of the balloon. He 
made the first balloon ascent on record on October 
15, 1783, rising to a height of eighty feet, in the cap- 
tive balloon. On ^sTovember 21, in the same year, de 
Eozier undertook an expedition in a free balloon with 
the Marquis d'Arlandes as a companion. The experi- 
ment was to have been made with two condemned 
criminals, but de Rozier and d'Arlandes succeeded in 
obtaining the King's permission to make the attempt, 
and in consequence their names remain as those of 
the first aeronauts. They came safely to the ground 
after a voyage lasting twenty-five minutes. After 
this, ascensions speedily became a recognized sport, 
even for ladies. 



BALLOONS, 269 

The greatest altitude reached by these hot-air bal- 
loons was about 9,000 feet 

The great danger from fire, however, led to the 



4fif* 




Pilatre de Rozier's balloon. 



closer consideration of the hydrogen balloon of Pro- 
fessor Charles, who was building one of 30 feet di- 
ameter for the study of atmospheric phenomena. His 



270 BALLOONS. 

mastery of the subject is shown by the fact that his 
balloon was equipped with almost every device after- 
ward in use by the most experienced aeronauts. He 
invented the valve at the top of the bag for allowing 
the escape of gas in landings the open neck to permit 
expansion^ the network of cords to support the car, 
the grapnel for anchoring, and the use of a small 
pilot balloon to test the air-currents before the ascen- 
sion. He also devised a barometer by which he was 
able to measure the altitude reached by the pressure 
of the atmosphere. 

To provide the hydrogen gas required he used the 
chemical method of pouring dilute sulphuric acid on 
iron filings. The process was so slow that it took 
continuous action for three days and three nights to 
secure the 14,000 cubic feet needed, but his balloon 
was finally ready on December 1, 1783. One of the 
brothers Robert accompanied Charles, and they trav- 
elled about 40 miles in a little less than 4 hours, 
alighting at Nesles. Here Robert landed and Charles 
continued the voyage alone. Neglecting to take on 
board ballast to replace the weight of M. Robert, 
Charles was carried to a great height, and suffered 
severely from cold and the difficulty of breathing in 
the highly rarefied air. He was obliged to open his 



BALLOONS. 271 

gas valve and descend after half an hour's flight 
alone. 

Blanchard, another French inventor, about this 
time constructed a balloon with the intention of being 
the first to cross the English Channel in the air. 
He took his balloon to Dover and with Dr. Jeffries, 
an American, started on January 7, 1785. His bal- 
loon was leaky and he had loaded it down with a lot 
of useless things in the way of oars, provisions, and 
other things. All of this material and the ballast 
had to be thrown overboard at the outset, and books 
and parts of the balloon followed. Even their cloth- 
ing had to be thrown over to keep the balloon out of 
the sea, and at last^, when Dr. Jeffries had deter- 
mined to jump out to enable his friend to reach the 
shore, an upward current of wind caught them and 
with great difficulty they landed near Calais. The 
feat was highly lauded and a monument in marble 
was erected on the spot to perpetuate the record of 
the achievement. 

De Rozier lost his life soon after in the effort to 
duplicate this trip across the Channel with his com- 
bination hydrogen and hot-air balloon. His idea seems 
to have been that he could preserve the buoyancy of 
his double balloon by heating up the air balloon at in- 



BALLOONS. 273 

tervals. Unfortunately, the exuding of the hydrogen 
as the balloons rose formed an explosive mixture with 
the air he was rising through, and it was drawn to 
his furnace, and an explosion took place which blew 
the entire apparatus into fragments at an altitude of 
over 1,000 feet. 

Count Zambeccari, an Italian, attempted to im- 
prove the de Eozier method of firing a balloon by sub- 
stituting a large alcohol lamp for the wood fire. In 
the first two trial trips he fell into the sea, but was 
rescued. On the third trip his balloon was swept 
into a tree, and the overturned lamp set it on fire. 
To escape being burned, he threw himself from the 
balloon and was killed by the fall. 

The year before these feats on the Continent two 
notable balloon ascensions had taken place in Eng- 
land. On August 27, 1784, an aeronaut by the name 
of Tytler made the first balloon voyage within the 
boundaries of Great Britain. His balloon was of 
linen and varnished, and the record of his ascension 
indicates that he used hydrogen gas to inflate it. 
He soared to a great height, and descended safely. 

A few weeks later, the Italian aeronaut Lunardi 

made his first ascent from London. The spectacle 

drew the King and his councillors from their delib- 
18 



274 BALLOONS, 

erations^ and the balloon was watched until it disap- 
peared. He landed in Standon, near Ware, where 
a stone was set to record the event. On October 12, 
he made his famous voyage from Edinburgh over the 
Firth of Forth to Ceres; a distance of 46 miles in 
35 minutes, or at the rate of nearly 79 miles per 
hour ; a speed rarely equalled by the swiftest railroad 
trains. 

From this time on balloons multiplied rapidly and 
the ascents were too numerous for recording in these 
pages. The few which have been selected for men- 
tion are notable either for the great distances trav- 
ersed, or for the speed with which the journeys were 
made. It should be borne in mind that the fastest 
method of land travel in the early part of the period 
covered was by stage coach ; and the sailing ship was 
the only means of crossing the water. It is no won- 
der that often the people among whom the aeronauts 
landed on a balloon voyage refused to believe the 
statements made as to the distance they had come, 
and the marvellously short time it had taken. And 
even as compared with the most rapid transit of the 
present day, the speeds attained in many cases have 
never been equalled. 

A remarkable English voyage was made in June, 



BALLOONS, 275 

1802, by the French aeronaut Garnerin and Captain 
Snowdon. They ascended from Chelsea Gardens and 
landed in Colchester, 60 miles distant, in 45 min- 
utes: an average speed of 80 miles an hour. 

On December 16, 1804, Garnerin ascended from 
the square in front of l^otre Dame, Paris; passing 
over France and into Italy, sailing above St. Peter's 
at Rome, and the Vatican, and descending into Lake 
Bracciano — a distance of 800 miles in 20 hours. 
This voyage v^as made as a part of the coronation 
ceremonies of Napoleon I. The balloon was after- 
wards hung up in a corridor of the Vatican. 

On October 7, 1811, Sadler and Burcham voyaged 
from Birmingham to Boston (England), 112 miles 
in 1 hour 40 minutes, a speed of 67 miles per hour. 

On N^ovember 17, 1836, Charles Green and Monck 
Mason started on a voyage in the great balloon of the 
Vauxhall Gardens. It was pear-shaped, 60 feet 
high and 50 feet in diameter, and held 85,000 cubic 
feet of gas. It was cut loose at half-past one in the 
afternoon, and in 3 hours had reached the Eng- 
lish Channel^ and in 1 hour more had crossed it, 
and was nearly over Calais. During the night it 
floated on over France in pitchy darkness and such 
intense cold that the oil was frozen. In the morn- 




Prof. T. S. C. Lowe's mammoth balloon "City of New York," a feature of 
the year 1860, in which it made many short voyages in the vicinity of 
New York and Philadelphia. 



BALLOONS. 277 

ing the aeronauts descended a few miles from Weil- 
burg, in the Duchy of Nassau, having travelled about 
500 miles in 18 hours. At that date, by the fast- 
est coaches the trip would have consumed three 
days. The balloon was rechristened '' The Great 
Balloon of Nassau " by the enthusiastic citizens of 
Weilburg. 

In 1849, M. Arban crossed the Alps in a balloon, 
starting at Marseilles and landing at Turin — a dis- 
tance of 400 miles in 8 hours. This remarkable rec- 
ord for so long a distance at a high speed has rarely 
been equalled. It was exceeded as to distance at the 
same speed by the American aeronaut, John Wise, in 
1859. 

One of the most famous balloons of recent times 
was the '' Geant,'' built by M. Nadar, in Paris, in 
1853. The immense gas-bag was made of silk of the 
finest quality costing at that time about $1.30 a yard, 
and being made double, it required 22,000 yards. It 
had a capacity of 215,000 cubic feet of gas, and lifted 
4^ tons. The car was 13 feet square, and had an 
upper deck which was open. On its first ascent it 
carried 15 passengers, including M. Nadar as cap- 
tain, and the brothers Godard as lieutenants. A few 
weeks later this balloon was set free for a long-dis- 



278 BALLOONS. 

tance journey, and 17 hours after it left Paris it 
landed at Nieubnrg in Hanover, having traversed 
750 miles, a part of the time at the speed of fully 
90 miles per hour. 

In July, 1859, John Wise, an American aeronaut, 
journeyed from St. Louis, Mo., to Henderson, N. Y., 
a distance of 950 miles in 19 hours. His average 
speed was 50 miles per hour. This record for dura- 
tion at so high a rate of speed has never been ex- 
ceeded. 

During the siege of Paris in 1870, seventy-three 
balloons v^ere sent out from that city carrying mail 
and dispatches. These v^ere under Government di- 
rection, and receive notice in a subsequent chapter 
devoted to Military Aeronautics. One of these bal- 
loons is entitled to mention among those famous for 
rapid journeys, having travelled to the Zuyder Zee, a 
distance of 285 miles, in 3 hours — an average speed 
of 95 miles per hour. Another of these postal bal- 
loons belongs in the extreme long-distance class, hav- 
ing come down in Norway nearly 1,000 miles from 
Paris. 

In July, 1897, the Arctic explorer Andree started 
on his voyage to the Pole. As some of his instru- 
ments have been recently recovered from a wander- 



BALLOONS, 279 

ing band of Esquimaux, it is believed that a record 
of his voyage may yet be secured. 

In the same year a balloon under the command of 
Godard ascended at Leipsic, and after a wandering 
journey in an irregular course, descended at Wilna. 
The distance travelled was estimated at 1,032 miles, 
but as balloon records are always based on the air- 
line distance between the places of ascent and descent, 
this record has not been accepted as authoritative. 
The time consumed was 24 J hours. 

In 1899, Captain von Sigsfield, Captain Hilde- 
brandt, and a companion started from Berlin in a 
wind so strong that it prevented the taking on of an 
adequate load of ballast. They rose into a gale, and 
in two hours were over Breslau, having made the 
distance at a speed of 92 miles per hour. In the 
grasp of the storm they continued their swift jour- 
ney, landing finally high up in the snows of the 
Carpathian Alps in Austria. They were arrested 
by the local authorities as Eussian spies, but suc- 
ceeded in gaining their liberty by telegraphing to an 
official more closely in touch with the aeronautics of 
the day. 

In 1900 there were several balloon voyages not- 
able for their length. Jacques Balsan travelled from 




The balloon in which Coxwell and Glaisher made their famous ascent of 

29,000 feet 



i 



BALLOONS, 281 

Vincennes to Dantzig, 757 miles; Count de la Vaulx 
journeyed from Vincennes to Poland, 706 miles; 
Jacques Faure from Vincennes to Mamlity, 753 
miles. In a subsequent voyage Jacques Balsan trav- 
elled from Vincennes to Rodom, in Russia, 843 miles, 
in 27^ hours. 

One of the longest balloon voyages on record in 
point of time consumed is that of Dr. Wegener of the 
Observatory at Lindenberg, in 1905. He remained 
in the air for 52f hours. 

The longest voyage, as to distance, up to 1910, 
was that of Count de La Vaulx and Count Castillon 
de Saint Victor in 1906, in the balloon '^ Centaur." 
This was a comparatively small balloon, having a 
capacity of only 55,000 cubic feet of gas. The start 
wTis made from Vincennes on October 9th, and the 
landing at Korostischeff, in Russia, on October 11th. 
The air-line distance travelled was 1,193 miles, in 
35f hours. The balloon '' Centaur '' was afterward 
purchased by the Aero Club of America, and has 
made many voyages in this country. 

The Federation Aeronautique Internationale, an 
association of the aeronauts of all nations, was 
founded in 1905. One of its functions is an annual 
Iballoon race for the International Challenge Cup, 



282 BALLOONS, 

presented to the association by James Gordon Ben- 
nett, to be an object for competition until won tbree 
times by some one competing national club. 

The first contest took place in September, 1906, 
and was won by the American competitor, Lient. 
Frank P. Lahm, with a voyage of 402 miles. 

The second contest was from St. Lonis, Mo., in 
1907. There were three German, two French, one 
English, and three American competitors. The race 
was won by Oscar Erbsloh, one of the German com- 
petitors, with an air-line voyage of 872^ miles, land- 
ing at Bradley Beach, !N". J. Alfred Leblanc, now 
a prominent aviator, was second with a voyage of 
867 miles, made in 44 hours. He also landed in New 
Jersey. 

The third race started at Berlin in October, 1908, 
and was won by the Swiss balloon " Helvetia,'' pi- 
loted by Colonel Schaeck, which landed in l^or- 
way after having been 74 hours in the air, and 
covering a journey of 750 miles. This broke the 
previous duration record made by Dr. Wegener in 
1905. 

The fourth contest began on October 3, 1909, from 
Zurich, Switzerland. There were seventeen compet- 
ing balloons, and the race was won by E. W. Mix, 



BALLOONS, 283 

representing the Aero Club of America, with a voy- 
age of 589 miles. 

The fifth contest began at St. Louis, October 17, 
1910. It was won by Alan P. Hawley and Augustus 
Post, Avith the " America 11." They travelled 1,355 
miles in 46 hours, making a new world's record for 
distance. 

Among other notable voyages may be mentioned 
that of the ^^ Fielding" in a race on July 4, 1908, 
from Chicago. The landing was made at West 
Shefford, Quebec, the distance travelled being 895 
miles. 

In ITovember of the same year A. E. Gaudron, 
Captain Maitland, and C. C. Turner, made the long- 
est voyage on record from England. They landed at 
Mateki Derevni, in Russia, having travelled 1,117 
miles in 31^ hours. They were driven down to the 
ground by a severe snowstorm. 

On December 31, 1908, M. Usuelli, in the balloon 
" Euwenzori " left the Italian lakes and passed over 
the Alps at a height of 14,750 feet, landing in 
France. This feat was followed a few weeks later — 
February 9, 1909 — by Oscar Erbsloh, who left St. 
Moritz with three passengers, crossing the Alps at an 
altitude of 19,000 feet, and landed at Budapest after 




•a 

•a 

S 

K 

m 



O 

a 
o 
o 






BALLOONS. 285 

a voyage of 33 hours. Many voyages over and among 
the Alps have been made by Captain Spelterini, the 
Swiss aeronaut^ and he has secured some of the most 
remarkable photographs of the mountain scenery in 
passing. In these voyages at such great altitudes it 
is necessary to carry cylinders of oxygen to provide 
a suitable air mixture for breathing. In one of his 
recent voyages Captain Spelterini had the good for- 
tune to be carried almost over the summit of Mont 
Blanc. He ascended with three passengers at Cha- 
mounix, and landed at Lake Maggiore seven hours 
later, having reached the altitude of 18,700 feet, and 
travelled 93 miles. 

In the United States there were several balloon 
races during the year 1909, the most important being 
the St. Louis Centennial race, beginning on October 
4th. Ten balloons started. The race was w^on by 
S. von Phul, who covered the distance of 550 miles 
in 40 hours 40 minutes. Clifford B. Harmon and 
Augustus Post in the balloon " New York " made 
a naw duration record for America of 48 hours 26 
minutes. They also reached the highest altitude at- 
tained by an American balloon — 24,200 feet. 

On October 12th, in a race for the Lahm cup, A. 
Holland Forbes and Col. Max Fleischman won. 



286 BALLOONS. 

They left St. Louis, Mo.;, and landed 19 hours and 
15 minutes later at Beach, Va., near Richmond, hav- 
ing travelled 697 miles. 

In 1910, in the United States, a remarkable race, 
with thirteen competitors, started at Indianapolis. 
This was the elimination race for the International 
race on October 17th. It was won by Alan P. Haw- 
ley and Augustus Post in the balloon " America II." 
They crossed the Alleghany Mountains at an eleva- 
tion of about 20,000 feet, and landed at Warrenton, 
Va., after being 44 hours 30 minutes in the air; 
and descended only to escape being carried out over 
Chesapeake Bay. 

In recent years the greatest height reached by a 
balloon was attained by the Italian aeronauts Pia- 
cenza and Mina in the '^ Albatross," on August 9, 
1909. They went up from Turin to the altitude of 
30,350 feet. The world's height record rests with 
Professors Person and Suring of Berlin, who on 
July 31, 1901, reached 35,500 feet. The record of 
37,000 feet claimed by Glaisher and Coxwell in their 
ascension on September 5, 1862, has been rejected as 
not authentic for several discrepancies in their obser- 
vations, and on the ground that their instruments 
were not of the highest reliability. As they carried 



BALLOONS. 287 

no oxygen, and reported that for a time they were 
both unconscious, it is estimated that the highest 
point they could have reached under the conditions 
was less than 31,000 feet. 

The greatest speed ever recorded for any balloon 
voyage was that of Captain von Sigsfield and Dr. 
Linke in their fatal journey from Berlin to Antwerp, 
during which the velocity of 125 miles per hour was 
recorded. 

Ballooning as a sport has a fascination all its own. 
There is much of the spice of adventure in the fact 
that one's destiny is quite unknown. Floating with 
the wind, there is no consciousness of motion. 
Though the wind may be travelling at great speed, 
the balloon seems to be in a complete calm. A lady 
passenger, writing of a recent trip, has thus described 
her experience : — '' The world continues slowly to un- 
roll itself in ever-varying but ever-beautiful pano- 
rama — patchwork fields, shimmering silver streaks, 
toy box churches and houses, and white roads like the 
joints of a jig-saw puzzle. And presently cotton-wool 
billows come creeping up, with purple shadows and 
fleecy outlines and prismatic rainbow effects. Some- 
times they invade the car, and shroud it for a while 
in clinging warm white wreaths, and anon they fall 



288 BALLOONS. 

below and shut out the world with a glorious curtain^ 
and we are all alone in perfect silence^ in perfect 
peace, and in a realm made for us alone. 

" And so the happy, restful hours go smoothly by, 
until the earth has had enough of it, and rising up 
more or less rapidly to invade our solitude, hits the 
bottom of our basket, and we step out, or maybe roll 
out, into every-day existence a hundred miles away.'' 

The perfect smoothness of motion, the absolute 
quiet, and the absence of distracting apparatus com- 
bine to render balloon voyaging the most delightful 
mode of transit from place to place. Some of the 
most fascinating bits of descriptive writing are those 
of aeronauts. The following quotation from the re- 
port of Capt. A. Hildebrandt, of the balloon corps 
of the Prussian army, will show that although his 
expeditions were wholly scientific, he was far from 
indifferent to the sublimer influences of nature by 
which he was often surrounded. 

In his account of the journey from Berlin to Mar- 
karyd, in Sweden, with Professor Person as a com- 
panion aeronaut, he says : " The view over Riigen and 
the chalk cliffs of Stubbenkammer and Arkona was 
splendid: the atmosphere was perfectly clear. On 
the horizon we could see the coasts of Sweden and 



i 



BALLOONS. 289 

Denmark, looking almost like a thin mist; east and 
west there was nothing but the open sea. 

'^ About 3 :15 the balloon was in the middle of the 
Baltic; right in the distance we could just see Eli- 
gen and Sweden. The setting of the sun at 4 p.m. 
was a truly magnificent spectacle. At a height of 
5,250 feet, in a perfectly clear atmosphere, the effect 
was superb. The blaze of color was dimly reflected 
in the east by streaks of a bluish-green. I have seen 
sunsets over France at heights of 10,000 feet, with 
the Alps, the Juras, and the Vosges Mountains in 
the distance; but this was quite as fine. 

^^ The sunsets seen by the mountaineer or the sailor 
are doubtless magnificent; but I hardly think the 
spectacle can be finer than that spread out before the 
gaze of the balloonist. The impression is increased 
by the absolute stillness which prevails; no sound 
of any kind is heard. 

" As soon as the sun went down, it was necessary 

to throw out some ballast, owing to the decrease of 

temperature. . . . We reached the Swedish coast 

about 5 o'clock, and passed over Trelleborg at a 

height of 2,000 feet. The question then arose 

whether to land, or to continue through the night. 

Although it was well past sunset, there was sufiicient 
19 



BALLOONS. 291 

light in consequence of the snow to see our way to 
the ground, and to land quite easily. . . . However, 
we wanted to do more meteorological work, and it 
was thought that there was still sufficient ballast to 
take us up to a much greater height. We therefore 
proposed to continue for another sixteen hours dur- 
ing the night, in spite of the cold. . , . Malmo was 
therefore passed on the left, and the university town 
of Lund on the right. After this the map was of no 
further use, as it was quite dark and we had no lamp. 
The whole outlook was like a transformation scene. 
Floods of light rose up from Trelleborg, Malmo, 
Copenhagen, Landskrona, Lund, Elsinore, and Hel- 
singborg, while the little towns beneath our feet 
sparkled with many lights. We were now at a height 
of more than 10,000 feet, and consequently all these 
places were within sight. The glistening effect of 
the snow was heightened by the blaze which poured 
from the lighthouses along the coasts of Sweden and 
Denmark. The sight was as wonderful as that of the 
sunset, though of a totally different nature." 

Captain Hildebrandt's account of the end of this 
voyage illustrates the spice of adventure which is 
likely to be encountered when the balloon comes down 
in a strange country. It has its hint also of the hard- 



292 BALLOONS, 

ships for which the venturesome aeronaut has to be 
prepared. He says: — 

" Sooner or later the balloon would have been at 
the mercy of the waves. The valve was opened, and 
the balloon descended through the thick clouds. We 
could see nothing, but the little jerks showed us that 
the guide-rope was touching the ground. In a few 
seconds we saw the ground, and learned that we 
were descending into a forest which enclosed a num- 
ber of small lakes. At once more ballast was thrown 
out, and we skimmed along over the tops of the trees. 
Soon we crossed a big lake, and saw a place that 
seemed suitable for a descent. The valve was then 
opened, both of us gave a tug at the ripping cord, 
and after a few bumps we found ourselves on the 
ground. We had come down in deep snow on the 
side of a wood, about 14 miles from the railway sta- 
tion at Markaryd. 

'^ We packed up our instruments, and began to 
look out for a cottage; but this is not always an 
easy task in the dead of night in a foreign country. 
However, in a quarter of an hour we found a farm, 
and succeeded in rousing the inmates. A much more 
difficult job was to influence them to open their front 
door to two men who talked some sort of double 



BALLOONS. 



293 



Dutch, and who suddenly appeared at a farmyard 
miles off the highway in the middle of the night 
and demanded admittance. Berson can talk In six 



T 





Making a landing with the aid of bystanders to pull down upon the trail-rope 
and a holding rope. 

languages, but unfortunately Swedish is not one of 
them. He begged in the most humble way for shel- 
ter .. . and at the end of three-quarters of an hour 
the farmer opened the door. We showed him some 



294 BALLOONS, 

pictures of a balloon we had with ns, and then they 
began to understand the situation. We were then re- 
ceived with truly Swedish hospitality^ and provided 
with supper. They even proposed to let us have their 
beds; but this we naturally declined with many 
thanks. . . . The yard contained hens, pigs, cows, 
and sheep; but an empty corner was found, which 
was well packed with straw, and served as a couch for 
our tired limbs. We covered ourselves with our great- 
coats, and tried to sleep. But the temperature was 
10° Fahr.^ and as the place was only an outhouse 
of boards roughly nailed together, and the wind 
whistling through the cracks and crevices, we were 
not sorry when the daylight came.'^ 

Lest the possibility of accident to travellers by 
balloon be judged greater than it really is, it may 
be well to state that records collected in Germany in 
1906 showed that in 2,061 ascents in which 7,570 
persons participated, only 36 were injured — or but 1 
out of 210. Since that time, while the balloon itself 
has remained practically unchanged, better knowl- 
edge of atmospheric conditions has aided in creating 
an even more favorable record for recent years. 

That the day of ordinary ballooning has not been 
dimmed by the advent of the airship and the aero- 



BALLOONS. 295 

plane is evidenced by the recently made estimate that 
not less than 800 spherical balloons are in constant 
use almost daily in one part or another of Christen- 
dom. And it seems entirely reasonable to predict that 
with a better comprehension of the movements of 
air-currents — to which special knowledge the scien- 
tific world is now applying its investigations as never 
before- — they will come a great increase of interest in 
simple ballooning as a recreation. 



\ 



Chapter XIV. 
BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 

Elongation of gas-bag — Brisson — Meusnier— Air-ballonnets — 
Scott — Giffard — Haenlein — Tissandier — Renard and Krebs 
— Schwartz — Santos-Dumont — Von Zeppelin — Roze — Seve- 
ro — Bradsky-Leboun — The Lebaudy dirigible — Zeppelin II 
■ — Parseval I — Unequal wind pressures — Zeppelin III — 
Nulli Secundus — La Patrie — Ville-de-Paris — Zeppelin IV — 
Gross I — Parseval II — Clement-Bayard I — Ricardoni's air- 
ship — Gross II — The new Zeppelin II — La Republique — 
The German fleet of dirigibles — Parseval V — The Deutsch- 
land — The Erbsloh — Gross III — Zeppelin VI — The America 
— Clement-Bayard III — The Capazza lenticular dirigible. 

THE dirigible balloon, or airship, is built on the 
same general principles as the ordinary bal- 
loon — that is, with the envelope to contain the lift- 
ing gas, the car to carry the load, and the suspending 
cordage — but to this is added some form of propel- 
ling power to enable it to make headway against the 
wind, and a rudder for steering it. 

Almost from the very beginning of ballooning, 
some method of directing the balloon to a pre-deter- 
mined goal had been sought by inventors. Drift- 
ing at the fickle pleasure of the prevailing wind 
296 



BALLOONS: THE D-IRIGIBLE. 297 

did not accord with man's desire for authority and 
control. 

The first step in this direction was the change 
from the spherical form of the gas-bag to an elon- 
gated shape, the round form having an inclination to 
turn round and round in the air while floating, and 
having no bow-and-stern structure upon which steer- 
ing devices could operate. The first known proposal 
in this direction was made by Brisson^ a French sci- 
entist, who suggested building the gas-bag in the 
shape of a horizontal cylinder with conical ends, its 
length to be five or six times its diameter. His idea 
for its propulsion was the employment of large- 
bladed oars, but he rightly doubted whether human 
strength would prove sufficient to work these rapidly 
enough to give independent motion to the airship. 

About the same time another French inventor had 
actually built a balloon with a gas-bag shaped like 
an egg and placed horizontally with the blunt end 
foremost. The reduction in the resistance of the air 
to this form was so marked that the elongated gas- 
bag quickly displaced the former spherical shape. 
This balloon was held back from travelling at the 
full speed of the wind by the clever device of a rope 
dragging on the ground; and by a sail rigged so as 



298 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 

to act on the wind which blew past the retarded 
balloon^ the navigator was able to steer it within 
certain limits. It was the first dirigible balloon. 

In the same year the brothers Robert^ of Paris, 
built an airship for the Duke of Chartres, under the 
direction of General Meusnier, a French officer of 
engineers. It was cylindrical, with hemispherical 
ends, 52 feet long and 32 feet in diameter, and con- 
tained 30,000 cubic feet of gas. The gas-bag was 
made double to prevent the escape of the hydrogen, 
which had proved very troublesome in previous bal- 
loons, and it was provided with a spherical air bal- 
loon inside of the gas-bag, which device was expected 
to preserve the form of the balloon unchanged by 
expanding or contracting, according to the rising or 
falling of the airship. When the ascension was made 
on July 6, 1784, the air-balloon stuck fast in the 
neck of the gas-bag, and so prevented the escape of 
gas as the hydrogen expanded in the increasing alti- 
tude. The gas-bag would have burst had not the 
Duke drawn his sword and slashed a vent for the 
imprisoned gas. The airship came safely to earth. 

It was General Meusnier who first suggested the 
interior ballonnet of air to preserve the tense outline 
of the form of the airship, and the elliptical form for 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE, 299 

the gas-bag was another of his inventions. In the 
building of the airship of the Duke de Chartres he 
made the further suggestion that the space between 
the two envelopes be filled with air, and so connected 
with the air-pumps that it could be inflated or de- 
flated at will. For the motive power he designed 
three screw propellers of one blade each, to be turned 
unceasingly by a crew of eighty men. 

Meusnier was killed in battle in 1793, and aero- 
nautics lost its most able developer at that era. 

In 1789, Baron Scott, an officer in the French 
army, devised a fish-shaped airship with two outside 






The Scott airship, showing the forward "pocket" partially drawn in. 

balloon-shaped " pockets " which could be forcibly 
drawn into the body of the airship to increase its 
density, and thus cause its descent. 

It began to be realized that no adequate power ex- 
isted by which balloons could be propelled against 



300 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 

even light winds to such a degree that they were 
really controllable, and balloon ascensions came to be 
merely an adjunct of the exhibit of the travelling 
showman. For this reason the early part of the 
nineteenth century seems barren of aeronautical in- 
cident as compared with the latter part of the pre- 
ceding century. 

In 1848, Hugh Bell, an Englishman, built a cylin- 
drical airship with convex pointed ends. It was 55 
feet long and 21 feet in diameter. It had a keel- 
shaped framework of tubes to which the long narrow 
ear was attached, and there was a screw propeller on 
each side, to be worked by hand, and a rudder to 
steer with. It failed to work. 

In 1852, however, a new era opened for the air- 
ship. Henry Giffard, of Paris, the inventor of the 
world-famed injector for steam boilers, built an ellip- 
tical gas-bag with cigar-shaped ends, 144 feet long, 
and 40 feet in diameter, having a cubic content of 
88,000 cubic feet. The car was suspended from a 
rod 66 feet long which hung from the net covering 
the gas-bag. It was equipped with a 3-horse-power 
steam engine which turned a two-bladed screw pro- 
peller 11 feet in diameter, at the rate of 110 revo- 
lutions per minute. Coke was used for fuel. The 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 



301 



steering was done with a triangular rudder-sail. 
Upon trial on September 24, 1852, the airship 




The first Giffard dirigible. 

proved a success^ travelling at the rate of nearly 6 
miles an hour. 

Giffard built a second airship in 1855, of a much 
more elongated shape — 235 feet long and 33 feet in 
diameter. He used the same engine which propelled 
his first ship. After a successful trial trip, when 
about to land, the gas-bag unaccountably turned up 
on end, allowing the net and car to slide off, and, ris- 
ing slightly in the air, burst. Giffard and his com- 
panion escaped unhurt. 

Giffard afterward built the large captive balloon 
for the London Exhibition in 1868, and the still 



302 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 



larger one for the Paris Exposition in 1878. He 
designed a large airship to be fitted with two boil- 
ers and a powerful steam-engine, but became blind, 
and died in 1882. 

In 1865, Paul Haenlein devised a cigar-shaped 
airship to be inflated with coal gas. It was to be 
propelled by a screw at the front to be driven by a 
gas-engine drawing its fuel from the gas in the body 




The Haenlein airship inflated with coal gac and driven by a gas-engine. 

of the ship. An interior air-bag was to be expanded 
as the gas was consumed, to keep the shape intact. 
A second propeller revolving horizontally was in- 
tended to raise or lower the ship in the air. 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE, 



303 



It was not until 1872 that he finally secured the 
building of an airship, at Vienna, after his plans. 
It was 164 feet long, and 30 feet in diameter. 
The form of the gas-bag was that described by the 
keel of a ship rotated around the centre line of its 
deck as an axis. The engine was of the Lenoir type, 
with four horizontal cylinders, developing about 6 
horse-power, and turned a propeller about 15 feet 
in diameter at the rate of 40 revolutions per minute. 
The low lifting power of the coal gas with which it 
was inflated caused it to float quite near the ground. 
With a consumption of 250 cubic feet of gas per 
hour, it travelled at a speed of ten miles an hour. 
The lack of funds seems to have prevented further 
experiments with an invention 
which was at least very prom- 
ising. 

In the same year a dirigi- 
ble balloon built by Dupuy de 
Lome for use by the French 
Government during the siege 
of Paris, was given a trial. 
It was driven by a screw propeller turned by eight 
men, and although it was 118 feet long, and 49 
feet in diameter, it made as good a speed rec- 




Sketch of the De Lome airship. 



804 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 



ord as Giffard's steam-driven airship — six miles an 
hour. 

In 1881^ the brothers Albert and Gaston Tissan- 
dier exhibited at the Electrical Exhibition in Paris 




Car of the Tissandier dirigible; driven by electricity. 



a model of an electrically driven airship, originally 
designed to establish communication with Paris dur- 
ing the siege of the Franco-Prussian War. In 1883, 
the airship built after this model v^as tried. It was 
92 feet long, and 30 feet at its largest diameter. 
The motive power was a Siemens motor run by 24 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE, 



305 



bichromate cells of 17 lbs. each. At full speed the 
motor made 180 revolutions per minute, developing 
1^ horse-power. The pull was 26 lbs. The pro- 
peller was 9 feet in diameter, and a speed of a little 
more than 6 miles an hour was attained. 

In 1884, two French army engineers, Renard 
and Krebs, built an airship, the now historic La 




Sketch of the Renard and Krebs airship La France, driven by a storage battery. 

France, with the shape of a submarine torpedo. It 

was 165 feet long and about 27 feet in diameter at 

the largest part. It had a gas content of 66,000 

cubic feet. A 9 horse-power Gramme electric motor 

was installed, driven by a storage battery. This 

operated the screw propeller 20 feet in diameter, 

which was placed at the forward end of the long car. 

The trial was made on the 9th of August, and was 

a complete success. The ship was sailed with the 

wind for about 2^ miles, and then turned about and 
20 



306 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE 

made its way back against the wind till it stood di- 
rectly over its starting point, and was drawn down 
to the ground by its anchor ropes. The trip of about 
5 miles was made in 23 minutes. In seven voyages 
undertaken the airship was steered back safely to its 
starting point five times. 

This first airship which really deserved the name 
marked an era in the development of this type of 
aircraft. In view of its complete success it is as- 
tonishing that nothing further was done in this line 
in France for fifteen years, when Santos-Dumont be- 
gan his series of record-making flights. Within this 
period, however, the gasoline motor had been adapted 
to the needs of the automobile, and thus a new and 
light-weight engine, suitable in every respect, had 
been placed within the reach of aeronauts. 

In the meantime, a new idea had been brought to 
the stage of actual trial. In 1893, in St. Petersburg, 
David Schwartz built a rigid airship, the gas recep- 
tacle of which was sheet aluminum. It was braced 
by aluminum tubes, but while being inflated the in- 
terior work was so badly broken that it was aban- 
doned. 

Schwartz made a second attemnt in Berlin in 
1897. The airship was safely inflated, and managecf 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 



307 



V. 



fo hold its position against a wind blowing 17 miles 
an hour, but could not make headw^ay against it. 
After the gas had been withdrawn, and before it 
could be put under shelter, a severe windstorm dam- 




Wreck of the Schwartz aluminum airship, at Berhn, in 1897. 



aged it, and the mob of spectators speedily demol- 
ished it in the craze for souvenirs of the occasion. 

In 1898, the young Brazilian, Santos-Dumont, 
came to Paris imbued with aeronautic zeal, and de- 
termined to build a dirigible balloon that w^ould sur- 
pass the former achievements of Giffard and Re- 
nard, which he felt confident w^ere but hints of w^hat 
might be accomplished by that type of airship. He 
began the construction of the series of dirigible bal- 
loons w^hich eventually numbered 12, each successive 
one being an improvement on the preceding. He 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 



309 



made use of the air-bag suggested by Meusnier for 
the balloon of the Duke of Chartres in 1784, al- 
though in an original way, at first using a pneumatic 
pump to inflate it^ and later a rotatory fan. l^either 
prevented the gas-bag from " buckling '' and coming 





Type of the later Santos-Dumont's dirigibles. 



down with consequences more or less serious to the 
airship- — but Santos-Dumont himself always escaped 
injury. His own record of his voyages in his book, 
My Air-Ships^ gives a more detailed account of his 
contrivances and inventions than can be permitted 
here. If Santos-Dumont did not greatly surpass his 
predecessors, he is at least to be credited with an en- 



310 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 

thusiasm which aroused the interest of the whole 
world in the problems of aeronautics ; and his later 
achievements in the building and flying of aeroplanes 
give him a unique place in the history of man's con- 
quest of the air. 

In 1900^ Count von Zeppelin's great airship, which 
had been building for nearly two years, was ready 
for trial. It had the form of a prism of 24 sides, 
with the ends arching to a blunt point. It was 420 
feet long, and 38 feet in diameter. The structure 
was rigid, of aluminum lattice work, divided into 
17 compartments, each of which had a separate gas- 
bag shaped to fit its compartment. Over all was 
an outer envelope of linen and silk treated with 
pegamoid. A triangular keel of aluminum lattice 
strengthened the whole, and there were two cars of 
aluminum attached to the keel. Each car held a 
16 horse-power Daimler gasoline motor, operating 
two four-bladed screw propellers which were rigidly 
connected with the frame of the ship a little below 
the level of its axis. A sliding weight was run to 
either end of the keel as might be required to de- 
press the head or tail, in order to rise or fall in the 
air. The cars were in the shape of boats, and the 
ship was built in a floating shed on the Lake of Con- 



312 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE, 

stance near Friedrichshafen. At the trial the air- 
ship was floated out on the lake, the car-boats resting 
on the water. Several accidents happened, so that 
though the ship got up into the air it could not be 
managed, and was brought down to the water again 
without injury. In a second attempt a speed of 
20 miles an hour was attained. The construction 
was found to be not strong enough for the great 
length of the body, the envelope of the balloon was 
not sufficiently gas tight, and the engines were not 
powerful enough. But few trips were made in it, 
and they were short. The Count set himself to work 
to raise money to build another ship, which he did 
five years later. 

In 1901, an inventor named Roze built an airship 
in Colombo, having two gas envelopes with the en- 
gines and car placed between them. He expected to 
do away with the rolling and pitching of single air- 
ships by the double form, but the ship did not work 
satisfactorily, ascending to barely 50 feet. 

In 1902, Augusto Severe, a Brazilian, arranged 
an airship with the propelling screws at the axis of 
the gas-bag, one at each end of the ship. Instead 
of a rudder, he provided two small propellers to 
work in a vertical plane and swing the ship sideways. 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 



313 



Soon after ascending it was noticed that the pro- 
pellers were not working properly, and a few min- 




Sketch of the Severe airship, showing arrangement of the driving propellers 
on the axis of the gas-bag, and the steering propellers. 

ntes later the car was seen to be in flames and the 
balloon exploded. Severo and his companion Sache 
were killed, falling 1,300 feet. 

In the same year Baron Bradsky- 
Leboun built an airship with par- 
titions in the gas-bag which was 
just large enough to counterbal- 
ance the weight of the ship and 

End view of Severo's {^^ operators. 'It WaS lifted or low- 
airship, showing the 

longitudinal division ercd by a propcUcr working hori- 

of the gas-bag to al- 
low the driving shaft zontally. Another propeller drove 

of the propellers to ^ - c* i n^i i 

be placed at the axis the ship lorward. Ihrougn some 
lack of stability the car turned 
over, throwing out the two aeronauts, who fell 300 
feet and were instantly killed, 




314 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 



In 1902^ a dirigible balloon was built for tlie 
brothers Lebaudy by the engineer Juillot and the 
aeronaut Surcouf. The gas envelope was made 
cigar-shaped and fastened rigidly to a rigid elliptical 
keel-shaped floor 70 feet long and 19 feet wide, made 




The first Lebaudy airship. 



of steel tubes — the object being to prevent rolling 
and pitching. It was provided with both horizontal 
and vertical rudders. A 35 horse-power Daimler- 
Mercedes motor was used to turn two twin-bladed 
screws, each of 9 feet in diameter. Between the 
25th of October, 1902, and the 21st of November, 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 



315 



1903, 33 experimental voyages were made, the long- 
est being 61 miles in 2 hours and 46 minutes ; 38.7 




Framing of the floor and keel of the Lebaudy airship. 

miles in 1 hour and 41 minntes; 23 miles in 1 hour 
and 36 minutes. 

In 1904 this ship was rebuilt. It was lengthened 
to 190 feet and the rear end rounded off. Its capac- 



316 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 



ity was increased to 94,000 cubic feet, and a new 
covering of the yellow calico which had worked so 
well on the first model was used on the new one. 




The car and propellers of the Lebaudy airship. 



It was coated with rubber both on the outside and in- 
side. The interior air-bag was increased in size to 
17,650 cubic feet, and partitioned into three com- 
partments. During 1904 and 1905 30 voyages were 
made, carrying in all 195 passengers. 

The success of this airship led to a series of trials 
under the direction of the French army, and in all 
of these trials it proved satisfactory. After the 76th 
successful voyage it was retired for the winter of 
J905-6. 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 317 

In November, 1905, the rebuilt Zeppelin airship 
was put upon trial. While superior to the first one, 
it met with serious accident, and was completely 
wrecked by a windstorm in January, 1906. 

In May, 1906, Major von ParsevaFs non-rigid 
airship passed through its first trials successfully. 
This airship may be packed into small compass for 
transportation, and is especially adapted for mili- 
tary use. In plan it is slightly different from pre- 
vious types, having two air-bags, one in each end 
of the envelope, and the front end is hemispherical 
instead of pointed. 

As the airship is designed to force its way through 
the air, instead of floating placidly in it, it is evi- 
dent that it must have a certain tenseness of outline 
in order to retain its shape, and resist being doubled 
up by the resistance it encounters. It is estimated 
that the average velocity of the wind at the elevation 
at which the airship sails is 18 miles per hour. If 
the speed of the ship is to be 20 miles per hour, as 
related to stations on the ground, and if it is obliged 
to sail against the wind, it is plain that the wind 
pressure which it is compelled to meet is 38 miles 
per hour — a gale of no mean proportions. When the 
large expanse of the great gas-bags is taken into con- 



818 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 

sideration, it is evident that ordinary balloon con- 
struction is not sufficient. 

Attempts have been made to meet the outside pres- 
sure from the wind and air-resistance by producing 
mechanically a counter-pressure from the inside. 
Air-bags are placed inside the cavity of the gas-bag, 
usually one near each end of the airship, and these 
are inflated by pumping air into them under pres- 
sure. In this way an outward pressure of as much 
as 7 lbs. to the square foot may be produced, equiva- 
lent to tlie resistance of air at a speed (either of the 
wind, or of the airship, or of both combined) of 48 
miles per hour. It is evident, however, that the pres- 
sure upon the front end of an airship making head- 
way against a strong wind will be much greater than 
the pressure at tlie rear end, or even than that amid- 
ships. It was this uneven pressure upon the outside 
of the gas-bag that doubled up the first two airships 
of Santos-Dumont, and led him to increase the pro- 
portional girth at the amidship section in his later 
dirigibles. The great difficulty of adjusting these 
varying pressures warrants the adherence of Count 
von Zeppelin to his design with the rigid structure 
and metallic sheathing. 

The loss of the second Zeppelin airship so dis- 



320 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE, 

couraged its designer that lie decided to withdraw 
from further aeronautical work. But the German 
Government prevailed on him to continue, and by 
October, 1906, he had the Zeppelin III in the air. 
This airship was larger than Zeppelin II in both 
length and diameter, and held 135,000 cubic feet 
more of gas. The motive power was supplied by two 
gasoline motors, each of 85 horse-power. The gas 
envelope had 16 sides, instead of 24, as in the earlier 
ship. At its trial the Zeppelin III proved highly 
successful. It made a trip of 69 miles, with 11 pas- 
sengers, in 2^ hours — a speed of about 30 miles an 
hour. 

The German Government now made an offer of 
$500,000 for an airship which would remain con- 
tinuously in the air for 24 hours, and be able to land 
safely. Count von Zeppelin immediately began work 
upon his 3^0. IV, in the effort to meet these require- 
ments, in the meantime continuing trips with No. 
III. The most remarkable of these trips was made 
in September, 1907, a journey of 211 miles in 8 
hours. 

In October, 1907, the English airship " l^ulli Se- 
cundus '' was given its first trial. The gas envelope 
had been made of goldbeater's skins, which are con- 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE, 321 

sidered impermeable to the contained gas, but are 
very expensive. This airship w^as of the non-rigid 
type. It made the trip from Aldershot to London^ a 
distance of 50 miles, in 3^ hours — an apparent speed 
of 14 miles per hour, lacking information as to the 
aid or hindrance of the prevailing wind. Several 
other trials were made, but with small success. 

The offer of the German Government had stimu- 
lated other German builders besides Count von Zep- 
pelin, and on October 28, 1907, the Parseval I, 
which had been improved, and the new Gross dirig- 
ible, competed for the government prize, at Berlin. 
The Parseval kept afloat for 6^ hours, and the Gross 
for 8^ hours. 

Meanwhile, in France, the Lebaudys had been 
building a new airship which was named " La Pa- 
trie." It was 197 feet long and 34 feet in diameter. 
In a trial for altitude it was driven to an elevation 
of 4,300 feet. On November 23, 1907, the " Pa- 
trie " set out from Paris for Verdun, a distance of 
146 miles. The journey was made in 6J hours, at 
an average speed of 25 miles per hour, and the fuel 
carried was sufficient to have continued the journey 
50 miles further. Soon after reaching Verdun a 

severe gale tore the airship away from the regiment 
21 



322 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE, 



of soldiers detailed to assist the anchors in holding 
it down, and it disappeared into the clouds. It is 
known to have passed over England, for parts of its 
machinery were picked np at several points, and 
some days later the gas-bag was seen floating in the 
North Sea. 

Following close upon the ill-fated ^^ Patrie " came 
the ^' Ville-de-Paris/' a dirigible which had been 




The "Ville-de-Paris" of M. de la Meurthe. 



bnilt by Surcouf for M. Henri Deutsch de la 
Menrthe, an eminent patron of aeronautic experi- 
ments. In size this airship was almost identical with 
the lost ^' Patrie/' but it was quite different in ap- 
pearance. It did not have the flat framework at the 
bottom of the gas envelope, but was entirely round 
in section, and the long car was suspended below. 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 323 

At the rear the gas-bag was contracted to a cylindri- 
cal form^ and four groups of two ballonnets each 
were attached to act as stabilizers. It was offered 
by M. de la Meurthe to the French Government to 
take the place of the '^ Patrie '' in the army ma- 
noeuvres at Verdun^ and on January 15, 1908, made 
the trip thither from Paris in about 7 hours. It 
was found that the ballonnets exerted considerable 
drag upon the ship. 

In June, 1908, the great ^^ Zeppelin IV '' was 
completed and given its preliminary trials, and on 
July 1 it started on its first long journey. Leaving 
Friedrichshafen, its route was along the northerly 
shore of Lake Constance nearly to Schaffhausen, 
then southward to and around Lake Lucerne, thence 
northward to Zurich, thence eastward to Lake Con- 
stance, and to its shed at Friedrichshafen. The dis- 
tance traversed was 236 miles, and the time con- 
sumed 12 hours. This voyage without a single mis- 
hap aroused the greatest enthusiasm among the Ger- 
man people. After several short flights, during 
which the King of Wlirttemberg, the Queen, and 
some of the royal princes were passengers, the Zep- 
pelin IV set out on August 4 to win the Government 
reward by making the 24-hour flight. Sailing east- 



324 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 

ward from Friedrichshafen it passed over Basle, 
then turning northward it followed the valley of the 
Rhine, passing over Strasburg and Mannheim, and 
had nearly reached Mayence when a slight accident 
necessitated a landing. Repairs were made, and the 
journey resumed after nightfall. Mayence was 
reached at 11 p. m., and the return trip begun. When 
passing over Stuttgart, at 6 a. m., a leak was discov- 
ered, and a landing was made at Echterdingen, a 
few miles farther on. Here, while repairs were be- 
ing made, a squall struck the airship and bumped 
it heavily on the ground. Some gasoline was spilled, 
in some unknown way, which caught fire, and in a 
few moments the great balloon was totally destroyed. 
It had been in continuous flight 11 hours up to the 
time of the first landing, and altogether 20f hours, 
and had travelled 258 miles. 

The German people immediately started a public 
subscription to provide Count von Zeppelin with the 
funds needed to build another airship, and in a few 
days the sum of $1,500,000 was raised and turned 
over to the unfortunate inventor. The '^ Zeppelin 
III '^ was taken in hand, and lengthened, and more 
powerful engines installed. 

The ^^ Gross 11^' was ready to make its attempt for 



326 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 

the Government prize on September 11, 1908. It 
sailed from Tegel to Magdebnrg and back to Tegel, 
a distance of 176 miles, in 13 hours, without 
landing. 

Four days later the '^ Parseval II '' made a trip 
between the same points in 11^ hours, but cut the 
distance travelled down to 157 miles. In October, 
the " Parseval II '' was sent up for an altitude test, 
and rose to a height of 5,000 feet above Tegel, hov- 
ering over the city for upward of an hour. 

During 1908, an airship designed by M. Clement, 
the noted motor-car builder, was being constructed 
in France. It made its first voyage on October 29, 
carrying seven passengers from Sartrouville to Paris 
and back, at a speed of from 25 to 30 miles per hour. 
The illustration gives a very good idea of the pecu- 
liar ballonnets attached to the rear end of the gas 
envelope. These ballonnets open into the large gas- 
bag, and are practically a part of it. 

In Italy a remarkable dirigible has been built by 
Captain Ricaldoni, for military purposes. It has 
the form of a fish, blunt forward, and tapering 
straight away to the rear. It has a large finlike sur- 
face on the under side of the gas-bag toward the 
rear. Its performances show that its efficiency as 




V 







328 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE, 

compared with its motive power is larger than any 
other dirigible in commission. 

In May^ 1909^ the rebuilt ^^ Zeppelin III/' now re- 
christened ^^ Zeppelin 11/' after many successful short 
flights was prepared for the Government trial. On 
May 29^ 1909^ with a crew of six men. Count von 
Zeppelin started from Friedrichshafen for Berlin, 
360 miles away. The great ship passed over Ulm, 
l^uremburg, Bayreuth, and Leipzig; and here it en- 
countered so strong a head wind from the north, that 
it was decided to turn about at Bitterfeld and re- 
turn to Friedrichshafen. The distance travelled had 
been nearly 300 miles in 21 hours. The course fol- 
lowed was quite irregular, and took the ship over 
Wurtzburg^ and by a wide detour to Heilbron and 
Stuttgart. The supply of gasoline running low, it 
was decided to land at Goeppingen, where more 
could be obtained. It was raining heavily, and 
through some mistake in steering, or some sudden 
veering of the wind, the prow of the great dirigible 
came into collision with a tree upon the hillside. 
The envelope was badly torn, and a part of the alu- 
minum inner structure wrecked. However, the me- 
chanics on board were able to make such repairs that 
the ship was able to resume the voyage the next day, 



330 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 

and made port without further mishap. The vessel 
having been 38 hours in the air at the time of the 
accident^ so much of the Government's stipulations 
had been complied with. But it had not succeeded 
in landing safely. Nevertheless it was accepted by 
the Government. The entire journey has been vari- 
ously estimated at from 680 to 900 miles, either fig- 
ure being a record for dirigibles. 

On August 4, the dirigible '^ Gross II '' made a 
voyage from Berlin to Apolda, and returned ; a dis- 
tance of 290 miles in 16 hours. This airship also 
was accepted by the German Government and added 
to its fleet. 

In August, the Zeppelin II was successfully sailed 
to Berlin, where Count von Zeppelin was welcomed 
by an immense and enthusiastic multitude of his 
countrymen, including the Emperor and the royal 
family. 

On September 26, the nev/ French dirigible, ^^ La 
Republique,'' built on the model of the successful 
Lebaudy airships, met with an accident while in the 
air. A blade of one of the propellers broke and 
slashed into the envelope. The ship fell from a 
height of 6,000 feet, and its crew of four men lost 
their lives. 



332 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE 

On April 22^ 1910, a fleet of German dirigibles^ 
comprising the " Zeppelin 11/' the '' Gross 11/' and 
the '' Parseval I/' sailed from Cologne to Hamburg, 
where they were reviewed by Emperor William. A 
strong wind having arisen, the '^ Gross 11/' which 
is of the semi-rigid type, was deflated, and shipped 
back to Cologne by rail. The non-rigid '' Parseval " 
made the return flight in safety. The rigid " Zep- 
pelin II " started on the return voyage, but was com- 
pelled to descend at Limburg, where it was moored. 
The wind increasing, it was forced away, and finally 
was driven to the ground at Weilburg and demol- 
ished. 

In May, 1910, the ''Parseval V," the smallest 
dirigible so far constructed, being but 90 feet in 
length, was put upon its trial trip. It made a cir- 
cular voyage of 80 miles in 4 hours. 

For several months a great Zeppelin passenger 
dirigible had been building by a stock company 
financed by German capital, under the direction of 
the dauntless Count von Zeppelin. It was 490 feet 
long, with a capacity of 666,900 cubic feet. A pas- 
senger cabin was built with ^-inch mahogany veneer 
upon a framework of aluminum, the inside being 
decorated with panels of rosewood inlaid with 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE, 333 

mother-of-pearl. The seats were wicker chairs, and 
the window openings had no glass. It was chris- 
tened the '^ Deutschland.'' 

After many days waiting for propitious weather 
the first '' air-liner '' set sail on June 22, 1910, from 
Friedrichshafen for Diisseldorf, carrying 20 pas- 
sengers who had paid $50 each for their passage. In 
addition there were 13 other persons on board. 

The start was made at three o'clock in the morn- 
ing, and the course laid was up the valley of the 
Rhine, as far as Cologne. Diisseldorf was reached at 
three o'clock in the afternoon, the airline distance 
of 300 miles having been covered in 9 hours of ac- 
tual sailing. From Mannheim to Diisseldorf, fa- 
vored by the wind, the great ship reached the speed 
of 50 miles per hour, for this part of the trip, out- 
stripping the fastest express trains which consume 
6 hours in the winding track up the valley. 

The next morning the '' Deutschland " left Diis- 
seldorf on an excursion trip, carrying several ladies 
among its passengers. The voyage was in every way 
a great success, and public enthusiasm was wide- 
spread. 

On June 29, a test trip was decided upon. No 
passengers were taken, but 19 newspaper correspond- 



334 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 

ents were invited guests. The Count had been 
warned of weather disturbances in the neighborhood, 
but he either disregarded them or felt confidence in 
his craft. It was intended that the voyage should 
last four hours, but the airship soon encountered a 
storm, and after 6 hours of futile striving against it, 
the fuel gave out. Caught in an upward draft, the 
'' Deutschland '' rose to an altitude of over 5,000 
feet, losing considerable gas, and then, entering a 
rainstorm, was heavily laden with moisture. Sud- 
denly, without definite reason, it began to fall ver- 
tically, and in a few moments had crashed into the 
tops of the trees of the Teutoberg forest. No one 
on board received more than slight injury, and all 
alighted safely by means of ladders. The ^^ Deutsch- 
land '' was a wreck, and was taken apart and shipped 
back to Friedrichshafen. 

On July 13, another giant passenger airship, de- 
signed by Oscar Erbsloh, who won the international 
balloon race in 1907 by a voyage from St. Louis to 
Asbury Park, met with fatal disaster. It was sail- 
ing near Cologne at an altitude of about 2,500 feet 
when it burst, and Erbsloh and his four companions 
were killed in the fall. 

On July 28, the " Gross III '' left Berlin with the 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 335 

object of beating the long distance record for dirigi- 
bles. Soon after passing Gotha the airship returned 
to that place, and abandoned the attempt. In 13 
hours a distance of 260 miles had been traversed. 

Undismayed by the catastrophes which had de- 
stroyed his airships almost as fast as he built them. 
Count von Zeppelin had his number VI ready to 
sail on September 3. With a crew of seven and 
twelve passengers he sailed from Baden to Heidel- 
berg — 53 miles in 65 minutes. It was put into com- 
mission as an excursion craft, and made several suc- 
cessful voyages. On September 14, as it was being 
placed in its shed at the close of a journey, it took 
fire unaccountably, and was destroyed together with 
the shed, a part of the framework only remaining. 

On October 15, 1910, the Wellman dirigible 
'^ America '' which had been in preparation for many 
weeks, left Asbury Park in an attempt to cross the 
Atlantic. Its balloon was 228 feet long, with a di- 
ameter of 52 feet, containing 345,000 cubic feet of 
gas. The car was 156 feet in length, and was ar- 
ranged as a tank in which 1,250 gallons of gasoline 
were carried. A lifeboat was attached underneath 
the car. There were two engines, each of 80 horse- 
power, and an auxiliary motor of 10 horse-power. 



336 BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 

Sleeping quarters were provided for the crew of six, 
and the balloon was fitted with a wireless telegraph 
system. All went well until off the island of ^NTan- 
tucket, where strong north winds were encountered, 
and the dirigible was swept southward toward Ber- 
muda. As an aid in keeping the airship at an ele- 
vation of about 200 feet above the sea, an enlarged 
trail-rope, called the equilibrator, had been con- 
structed of cans which were filled with gasoline. 
This appendage weighed 1^ tons, and the lower part 
of it was expected to float upon the sea. In practice 
it was found that the jarring of this equilibrator, 
when the sea became rough, disarranged the machin- 
ery, so that the propellers would not work, and the 
balloon Avas compelled to drift with the wind. To- 
ward evening of the second day a ship was sighted, 
and the America's crew were rescued. The airship 
floated away in the gale, and was soon out of sight. 
On October 16^ a new Clement-Bayard dirigible, 
with seven men on board, left Paris at 7.15 o'clock 
in the morning, and sailed for London. At 1 p. m. 
it circled St. Paul's Cathedral, and landed at the 
hangar at Wormwood Scrubbs a half hour later. 
The distance of 259 miles (airline) was traversed 
at the rate of 41 miles per hour, and the journey 



338 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 



surpassed in speed any previous journey by any other 
form of conveyance. 

On November 5^ 1910, the young Welsh aero- 
naut, Ernest T. Willows, who sailed his small dirig- 
ible from Cardiff to London in August, made a trip 
from London across the English Channel to Douai, 
France. This is the third time within a month that 
the Channel had been crossed by airships. 




M ^ .. . 

Diagram of the Capazza dirigible from the side. A A, stabilizing fins; 
ballonnet; R, rudder; M M, motors; FS, forward propeller; SS, 
propeller. 



B, air- 
stern 



Toward the close of 1910, 52 dirigibles were in 
commission or in process of construction. In the 
United States there w^ere 7 ; in Belgium, 2 ; in Eng- 
land, 6 ; in France, 12 ; in Germany, 14 ; in Italy, 5 ; 
in Russia, 1 ; in Spain, 1. 

The new Capazza dirigible is a decided departure 
from all preceding constructions, and may mark a 



BALLOONS: THE DIRIGIBLE. 



339 



Its gas en- 



new era in the navigation of the air 
velope is shaped like a lens, or a lentil, and is ar- 
ranged to sail flatwise with the horizon, thus par- 




Capazza dirigible from the front. From above it is an exact circle in outline 

taking of the aeroplane as well as the balloon type. 
No definite facts concerning its achievements have 
been pnblished. 



i 



Chapter XV. 
BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE. 

Preliminary inspection — Instruments — Accessories — Ballast 
— Inflating — Attaching the car — The ascension — Controls 
— Landing — Some things to be considered — After landing 
— Precautions. 

THE actual operation of a balloon is always en- 
trusted to an experienced pilot, or '' captain " 
as he is often called, because he is in command, and 
his authority must be recognized instantly whenever 
an order is given. Jfevertheless, it is often of great 
importance that every passenger shall understand the 
details of managing the balloon in case of need ; and 
a well-informed passenger is greatly to be preferred 
to an ignorant one. 

It is ordinarily one of the duties of the captain 
to inspect the balloon thoroughly; to see that there 
are no holes in the gas-bag, that the valve is in per- 
fect w^orking order, and particularly that the valve 
rope and the ripping cord are not tangled. He should 
also gather the instruments and equipment to be car- 
ried. 

340 



BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE. 341 

The instruments are usually an aneroid barometer, 
and perhaps a mercury barometer, a barograph (re- 
cording barometer), a psychrometer (recording ther- 
mometer), a clock, a compass, and an outfit of maps 
of the country over which it is possible that the 
balloon may float. Telegraph blanks, railroad time 
tables, etc., may be found of great service. A cam- 
era with a supply of plates will be indispensable 
almost, and the camera should be provided with a 
yellow screen for photographing clouds or distant 
objects. 

The ballast should be inspected, to be sure that it 
is of dry sand, free from stones ; or if water is used 
for ballast, it should have the proper admixture of 
glycerine to prevent freezing. 

It is essential that the inflating be properly done, 
and the captain should be competent to direct this 
process in detail, if necessary. What is called the 
" circular method '' is the simplest, and is entirely 
satisfactory unless the balloon is being fllled with 
pure hydrogen for a very high ascent, in which case 
it will doubtless be in the hands of experts. 

When inflating with coal-gas, the supply is usually 
taken from a large pipe adapted for the purpose. At 
a convenient distance from the gas-main the ground 



342 



BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE, 



is mad© smooth, and the ground cloths are spread out 
and pegged down to keep them in place. 

The folded balloon is laid out on the cloths with 
the neck opening toward the gas-pipe. The balloon 
is then unfolded, and so disposed that the valve will 
be uppermost, and in the centre of a circle embrac- 




.ci^w^i^ 



Balloon laid out in the circular method, ready for inflation. The valve is seen 
at the centre. The neck is at the right. 



ing the upper half of the sphere of the balloon, the 
opening of the neck projecting a few inches beyond 
the rim of the circle. The hose from the gas-main 
may then be connected with the socket in the neck. 
Having made sure that the ripping cord and the 
valve rope are free from each other, and properly 



BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE, 343 

connected with their active parts, and that the valve 
is fastened in place, the net is laid over the whole, 
and spread out symmetrically. A few bags of bal- 
last are hooked into the net around the circumference 
of the balloon as it lies, and the assistants distributed 
around it. It should be the duty of one man to hold 
the neck of the balloon, and not to leave it for any 
purpose whatever. The gas may then be turned on, 
and, as the balloon fills, more bags of ballast are 
hung symmetrically around the net ; and all are con- 
tinually moved downward as the balloon rises. 

Constant watching is necessary during the infla- 
tion, so that the material of the balloon opens fully 
without creases, and the net preserves its correct po- 
sition. When the inflation is finished the hoop and 
car are to be hooked in place. The car should be 
fitted up and hung with an abundance of ballast. 
Disconnect the gas hose and tie the neck of the bal- 
loon in such fashion that it may be opened with a 
pull of- the cord when the ascent begins. 

The ballast is then transferred to the hoop, or ring, 
and the balloon allowed to rise until this is clear of 
the ground. The car is then moved underneath, and 
the ballast moved down from the ring into it. Th6 
trail-rope should be made fast to the car directly 



344 BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE, 

under the ripping panel^ the object being to retard 
that side of the balloon in landing, so that the gas 
may escape freely when the panel is torn open, and 
not underneath the balloon, as would happen if the 
balloon came to earth with the ripping panel under- 
neath. 

The balloon is now ready to start, and the captain 
and passengers take their places in the car. The neck 
of the balloon is opened, and a glance upward will 
determine if the valve rope hangs freely through it. 
The lower end of this should be tied to one of the 
car ropes. The cord to the ripping panel should be 
tied in a different place, and in such fashion that no 
mistake can be made between them. The assistants 
stand around the edge of the basket, holding it so 
that it shall not rise until the word is given. The 
captain then adjusts the load of ballast, throwing off 
sufficient to allow the balloon to pull upward lightly 
against the men who are holding it. A little more 
ballast is then thrown off, and the word given to let 
go. The trail-rope should be in charge of some one 
who will see that it lifts freely from the ground. 

The balloon rises into the air to an altitude where 
a bulk of the higher and therefore lighter air equal 
to the bulk of the balloon has exactly the same weight. 




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346 BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE. 

This is ordinarily about 2,000 feet. If the sun 
should be shining the gas in the balloon Avill be ex- 
panded by the heat, and some of it will be forced out 
through the neck. This explains the importance of 
the open neck. In some of the early ascensions no 
such provision for the expansion of the gas was made, 
and the balloons burst with disastrous consequences. 

When some of the gas has been driven out by the 
heat, there is less weight of gas in the balloon, though 
it occupies the same space. It therefore has a ten- 
dency to rise still higher. On the other hand, if it 
passes into a cloud, or the sun is otherwise obscured, 
the volume of the gas will contract; it will become 
denser, and the balloon will descend. To check the 
descent the load carried by the balloon must be light- 
ened, and this is accomplished by throwing out some 
ballast ; generally, a few handfuls is enough. 

There is always more or less leakage of gas 
through the envelope as well as from the neck, and 
this also lessens the lifting power. To restore the 
balance, more ballast must be thrown out, and in 
this way an approximate level is kept during the 
journey. 

When the ballast is -nearly exhausted it will be 
necessary to come down, for a comfortable landing 



BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE, 347 

cannot be made without the use of ballast. A good 
landing place having been selected, the valve is 
opened, and the balloon brought down within a few 
yards of the ground. The ripping cord is then pulled 
and ballast thrown out so that the basket will touch 
as lightly as possible. Some aeronauts use a small 
anchor or grapnel to assist in making a landing, but 
on a windy day, when the car is liable to do some 
bumping before coming to rest, the grapnel often 
makes matters much worse for the passengers by a 
series of holdings and slippings, and sometimes causes 
a destructive strain upon the balloon. 

In making an ascent with a balloon full of gas 
there is certain to be a waste of gas as it expands. 
This expansion is due not only to the heat of the 
sun, but also to the lighter pressure of the air in the 
upper altitudes. It is therefore the custom with 
some aeronauts to ascend with a partially filled bal- 
loon, allowing the expansion to completely fill it. 
This process is particularly advised if a very high 
altitude is sought. When it is desired to make a 
long voyage it is wise to make the start at twilight, 
and so avoid the heat of the sun. The balloon will 
then float along on an almost unchanging level with- 
out expenditure of ballast. Rain and even the mois- 



348 



BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE. 



ture from clouds will sometimes wet the balloon so 
that it will cause a much greater loss of ballast than 
would have been required to be thrown out to rise 





A balloon ready for ascent. Notice that the neck is still tied. 

above the cloud or storm. Such details in the hand- 
ling of a balloon during a voyage will demand the 
skilled judgment of the captain. 



BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE, 349 

The trail-rope is a valuable adjunct when the bal- 
loon is travelling near the ground. The longer the 
part of the trail-rope that is dragging on the ground 
the less weight the balloon is carrying. And at 
night, when it is impossible to tell the direction in 
which one is travelling in any other way, the line 
of the trailing rope will show the direction from 
which the wind is blowing, and hence the drift of the 
balloon. 

The care of the balloon and its instruments upon 
landing falls upon the captain, for he is not likely 
to find assistants at hand competent to relieve him 
of any part of the necessary work. The car and the 
ring are first detached. The ropes are laid out free 
and clear, and the valve is unscrewed and taken off. 
The material of the balloon is folded smoothly, gore 
by gore. The ballast bags are emptied. Aiter all 
is bundled up it should be packed in the car, the cov- 
ering cloth bound on with ropes, and definite in- 
structions affixed for transportation to the starting- 
point. 

It is apparent that the whole of the gas is lost at 
the end of the journey. The cost of this is the larg- 
est expense of ballooning. For a small balloon of 
about 50,000 cubic feet, the coal-gas for inflating 



350 BALLOONS: HOW TO OPERATE, 

will cost about $35 to $40. If hydrogen is used, it 
will cost probably ten times as much. 

In important voyages it is customary to send up 
pilot balloons, to discover the direction of the wind 
currents at the different levels, so that the level which 
promises the best may be selected before the balloon 
leaves the ground. A study of the weather conditions 
throughout the surrounding country is a w^ise pre- 
caution, and no start should be made if a storm is 
imminent. The extent of control possible in bal- 
looning being so limited, all risks should be scrupu- 
lously avoided, both before and during the voyage, 
and nothing left to haphazard. 



Chapter XVI. 
BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE. 

The fabrics used — Preliminary varnishing — Varnishes — Rubber- 
ized fabrics — Pegamoid — Weight of varnish — Latitudes of 
the balloon — Calculating gores — Laying out patterns and 
cutting — Sewing — Varnishing — Drying — Oiling — The neck 
— The valve — The net — The basket. 

THE making of a balloon is almost always placed 
in the hands of a professional balloon-maker. 
But as the use of balloons increases, and their own- 
ers multiply, it is becoming a matter of importance 
that the most improved methods of making them 
should be known to the intending purchaser, as well 
as to the amateur who wishes to construct his own 
balloon. 

The fabric of which the gas. envelope is made may 
be either silk, cotton (percale), or linen. It should 
be of a tight, diagonal Aveave, of uniform and strong 
threads in both warp and woof, unbleached, and 
without dressing, or finish. If it is colored, care 

should be exercised tJiat the dye is one that will not 

351 



352 BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE, 

aflfect injuriously the strength or texture of the fab- 
ric. Lightness in weight, and great strength (as 
tested by tearing) , are the essentials. 

The finest German percale Aveighs about 2|^ ounces 
per square yard ; Russian percale, 3^ ounces, and 
French percale, 3f ounces, per square yard. The 
white silk used in Russian military balloons weighs 
about the same as German percale, but is very much 
stronger. Pongee silk is a trifle heavier. The silk 
used for sounding balloons is much lighter, weighing 
only a little over one ounce to the square yard. 

Goldbeater's skin and rubber have been used to 
some extent, but the great cost of the former places 
it in reach only of governmental departments, and 
the latter is of use only in small balloons for scien- 
tific work — up to about 175 cubic feet capacity. 

The fabric is first to be varnished, to fill up the 
pores and render it gas-tight. For this purpose a 
tliin linseed-oil varnish has been commonly used. 
To 100 parts of pure linseed-oil are added 4 parts 
of litharge and 1 part of umber, and the mixture is 
heated to about 350° Fahr., for six or seven hours, 
and stirred constantly. After standing a few days 
the clear part is drawn off for use. For the thicker 
varnish used on later coats, the heat should be raised 



BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE. 353 

to 450° and kept at about that temperature until it 
becomes thick. This operation is attended with 
much danger of the oil taking fire, and should be 
done only by an experienced varnish-maker. 

The only advantages of the linseed-oil varnish are 
its ease of application, and its cheapness. Its draw- 
backs are stickiness — requiring continual examina- 
tion of the balloon envelope, especially when the 
deflated bag is stored away — its liability to spontane- 
ous combustion, particularly wdien the varnish is 
new, and its very slow drying qualities, requiring a 
long wait between the coats. 

Another varnish made by dissolving rubber in ben- 
zine, has been largely used. It requires vulcanizing 
after application. It is never sticky, and is always 
soft and pliable. However, the rubber is liable to de- 
composition from the action of the violet ray of light, 
and a balloon so varnished requires the protection 
of an outer yellow covering — either of paint, or an 
additional yellow fabric. Unfortunately, a single 
sheet of rubberized material is not gas-tight, and it 
is necessary to make the envelope of two, or even 
three, layers of the fabric, thus adding much to the 
weight. 

The great gas-bags of the Zeppelin airships are 
23 



354 BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE. 

varnished with '' Pegamoid/' a patent preparation 
the constituents of which are not known. Its use by 
Count Zeppelin is the highest recommendation pos- 
sible. 

The weight of the varnish adds largely to the 
weight of the envelope. French pongee silk after 
receiving its five coats of linseed-oil varnish, weighs 
8 ounces per square yard. A double bag of percale 
with a layer of vulcanized rubber between, and a 
coating of rubber on the inside, and painted yellow 
on the outside, will w^eigh 11 ounces per square 
yard. Pegamoid material, which comes ready pre- 
pared, weighs but about 4 ounces per square yard, 
but is much more costly. 

In cutting out the gores of the envelope it is pos- 
sible to waste fully ^ of the material unless the 
work is sldlfully planned. Taking the width of 
the chosen material as a basis, we must first deduct 
from f of an inch to 1^ inches, in proportion to the 
size of the proposed balloon, for a broad seam and 
the overlapping necessary. Dividing the circumfer- 
ence at the largest diameter — the '' equator " of the 
balloon — by the remaining width of the fabric gives 
the number of gores required. To obtain the breadth 
of each gore at the different ^^latitudes" (suppos- 




Finsterwalder's method of cutting material for a spherical balloon, by which 
over one-fourth of the material, usually wasted in the common method, 
may be saved. It has the further advantage of saving more than half of 
the usual sewing. The balloon is considered as a spherical hexahedron 
(a six-surfaced figure similar to a cube, but with curved sides and edges. 
The circumference of the sphere divided by the width of the material 
gives the unit of measurement. The dimensions of the imagined hexa- 
hedron may then be determined from the calculated surface and the 
cutting proceed according to the illustration above, which shows five 
breadths to each of the-six curved sides. The illustration shows the seams 
of the balloon made after the Finsterwalder method, when looking down 
upon it from above. 



356 



BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE. 



ing the globe of the balloon to be divided by parallels 
similar to those of the earth) the following table is 
to be used; 0° representing the equator, and 90° the 
apex of the balloon. The breadth of the gore in in- 
ches at any latitude is the product of the decimal 
opposite that latitude in the table by the original 
width of the fabric in inches, thus allowing for 
seams. 



Table for Calculating Shape of Gores for Spherical 
Balloons 



0° 
3° 

6° 

9° 

12° 

15° 

18° 
21° 
24° 

27° 



.1.000 
.0.998 
.0.994 
.0.988 
.0.978 
.0.966 
.0.951 
.0.934 
.0.913 
.0.891 



30° 0.866 

33° 0.839 

36° 0.809 

39° 0.777 

42° 0.743 

45°. ..... . .0.707 

48° 0.669 

51° 0.629 

54° 0.588 

57° 0.544 



60° 0.500 

63° 0.454 

66° 0.407 

69° 0.358 

72° 0.309 

75° 0.259 

78° 0.208 

81° 0.156 

84° 0.104 

87° 0.052i 



In practice, the shape of the gore is calculated by 
the above table, and plotted out on a heavy paste- 
board, generally in two sections for convenience in 
handling. The board is cut to the plotted shape and 
used as the pattern for every gore. In large estab- 
lishments all the gores are cut at once by a machine. 

The raw edges are hemmed, and folded into one 



^ 



BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE, 357- 

another to give a flat seam, and are then sewn to- 
gether " through and through/' in twos and threes : 
afterward these sections are sew^n together. Puck- 
ering must be scrupulously avoided. In the case of 
rubberized material, the thread holes should be 
smeared with rubber solution, and narrow strips of 
the fabric cemented over the seams with the same 
substance. 

Varnishing is the next process, the gores being 
treated in turn. Half of the envelope is varnished 
first, and allow^ed to dry in a well-ventilated place 
out of reach of the sun's rays. The other half is 
varnished when the first is dry. A framew^ork which 
holds half of the balloon in the shape of a bell is 
usually employed. In case of haste, the balloon may 
be blown up with air, but this must be constantly re- 
newed to be of any service. 

The first step in varnishing is to get one side (the 
outer, or the inner) coated Avith a varnish thin 
enough to penetrate the material: then turn the en- 
velope the other side out and give that a coat of the 
thin varnish. Next, after all is thoroughly dry, give 
the outer side a coat of thick varnish closing all pores. 
When this is dry give the inner side a similar coat. 
Finally, after drying thoroughly, give both sides a 



358 BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE. 

coat of olive oil to prevent stickiness. The amount 
of varnish required is^ for the first coat 1^ times the 
weight of the envelope, and for the second coat ^ the 
weight — of the thin varnish. For the thick coat on 
the outer side ^ of the weight of the envelope, and 
on the inner side about half as much. For the olive- 
oil coat, about ^ of the weight of the envelope will be 
needed. These figures are approximate, some ma- 
terial requiring more, some less ; and a wasteful 
workman will cause a greater difference. 

The neck of the balloon (also called the tail) is in 
form a cylindrical tube of the fabric, sewn to an 
opening in the bottom of the balloon, which has been 
strengthened by an extra ring of fabric to support 
it. The lower end of the tube, called the mouth, is 
sewn to a wooden ring, which stiffens it. The size 
of the neck is dependent upon the size of the balloon. 
Its diameter is determined by finding the cube of 
one-half the diameter of the balloon, and dividing it 
by 1,000. In length, the neck should be at least 
four times its diameter. 

The apex of the balloon envelope is fitted with a 
large valve to permit the escape of gas when it is de- 
sired that the balloon shall descend. The door of 
the valve is made to open inward into the envelope, 



tw 



BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE. 359 

and is pulled open by the valve-cord which passes 
through the neck of the balloon into the basket, 
or car. This valve is called the manoeuvring valve, 
and there are many different designs equally effi- 
cient. As they may be had ready made, it is best 
for the amateur, unless he is a machinist, to pur- 
chase one. The main point to see to is that the seat 
of the valve is of soft pliable rubber, and that the 
door of the valve presses a comparatively sharp edge 
of metal or wood so firmly upon the seat as to indent 
it; and the springs of the valve should be strong 
enough to hold it evenly to its place. 

The making of the net of the balloon is another 
part of the work which must be delegated to profes- 
sionals. The material point is that the net distrib- 
utes the weight evenly over the surface of the upper 
hemisphere of the envelope. The strength of the 
cordage is an item which must be carefully tested. 
Different samples of the same material show such 
wide variations in strength that nothing but an actu- 
al test will determine. In general, however, it may 
be said that China-grass cordage is four times as 
strong as hemp cordage, and silk cordage is ten times 
as strong as hemp — for the same size cords. 

The meshes of the net should be small, allowing 



360 BALLOON^: HOW TO MAKE. 

the use of a small cord. Large cords mean large 
knots, and these wear seriously upon the balloon en- 
velope, and are very likely to cause leaks. In large 
meshes, also, the envelope puffs out between the cords 
and becomes somewhat stretched, opening pores 
through which much gas is lost by diffusion. 

11 The '' star,'' or centre of the net at the apex of the 

balloon, must be fastened immovably to the rim of 
the valve. The suspension cords begin at from 30° 
to 45° below the equator of the envelope, and are 
looped through rings in what are called " goose- 
necks.'' These allow a measure of sliding motion 
to the cordage as the basket sways in the wind. 

For protecting the net against rotting tfrom fre- 
quent wetting, it is recommended to saturate it thor- 
oughly with a solution of acetate of soda, drying im- 
mediately. Paraffin is sometimes used with more or 

|j! less success, but tarring should be avoided, as it ma- 

terially weakens the cordage. Oil or grease are even 
worse. ^ 

At the bottom of the net proper the few large cords 
into which the many small cords have been merged 
are attached to the ring of the balloon. .This is 
either of steel or of several layers of wood well bound 
together. The ropes supporting the basket are also 



VALVE 







Sketch showing the diamond mesh of balloon cordage and the method of dis- 
tributing the rings for the goose-necks; also the merging of netting cords 
into the suspension cords which support the car. The principal knots 
used in tying balloon nets are shown on the right. 



362 BALLOONS: HOW TO MAKE. 

fastened to this ring, and from it hang the trail-rope 
and the holding ropes. 

The basket is also to be made by a professional, 
as upon its workmanship may depend the lives of its 
occupants, though every other feature of the balloon 
be faultless. It must be light, and still very strong 
to carry its load and v^ithstand severe bumping. It 
should be from 3 to 4 feet deep, with a floor space 
of 4 feet by 5 feet. It is usually made of willow and 
rattan woven substantially together. The ropes sup- 
porting the car are passed through the bottom and 
woven in with it. Buffers are woven on to the out- 
side, and the inside is padded. The seats are small 
baskets in which is stored the equipment. With the 
completion of these the balloon is ready for its fur- 
nishings and equipment, which come under the direc- 
tion of the pilot, or captain, as detailed in the pre- 
ceding chapter. 



Chapter XVII. 
MILITARY AERONAUTICS. 

The pioneer Meusnier — L'Entreprenant — First aerostiers— First 
aerial warship — Bombardment by balloons — Free balloons in 
observations — Ordering artillery from balloon — The postal 
balloons of Paris — Compressed hydrogen — National experi- 
ments — Bomb dropping — Falling explosives — Widespread 
activity in gathering fleets — Controversies — Range of vision 
— Reassuring outlook. 

ALMOST from the beginning of success in trav- 
ersing the air the great possibilities of all 
forms of aircraft as aids in warfare have been 
recognized by military authorities, and, as has so 
often been the case with other inventions by non- 
military minds, the practically unlimited funds at 
the disposal of national war departments have been 
available for the development of the balloon at first, 
then the airship, and now of the aeroplane. 

The Montgolfiers had scarcely proved the possibil- 
ity of rising into the air, in 1783, before General 
Meusnier was busily engaged in inventing improve- 
ments in their balloon with the expressed purpose of 

making it of service to his army, and before he was 

363 



364 MILITARY AERONAUTICS. 

killed in battle he had secured the appointment of 
a commission to test the improved balloon as to its 
efficiency in war. The report of the committee being 
favorable, a balloon corps was formed in April, 1794, 
and the balloon UEntreprenant was nsed during the 
battle of Fleurus, on June 26th, by Meusnier's suc- 
cessor. General Jourdan, less than a year after Meus- 
nier's death. In 1795 this balloon was used in the 
battle of Mayence. In both instances it was em- 
ployed for observation only. 

But when the French entered Moscow, they found 
there, and captured, a balloon laden with 1,000 
pounds of gunpowder which was intended to have 
been used against them. 

In 1796 two other balloons were used by the 
French army then in front of Andernach and Ehr- 
enbreitstein, and in 1798 the 1st Company of Aero- 
stiers was sent to Egypt, and operated at the battle 
of the liile, and later at Cairo. In the year follow- 
ing, this balloon corps was disbanded. 

In 1812 Russia secured the services of a German 
balloon builder named Leppich, or Leppig, to build 
a war balloon. It had the form of a fish, and was 
so large that the inflation required five days, but the 
construction of the framework was faulty, and some 




/ / II 






A military dirigible making a tour of observation. 



366 MILITARY AERONAUTICS. 

important parts gave way during inflation, and the 
airship never left the ground. As it was intended 
that this balloon should be dirigible and supplied 
with explosives, and take an active part in attacks 
on enemies, it may be regarded as the first aerial 
warship. 

In 1849, however, the first actual employment of 
the balloon in warfare took place. Austria was en- 
gaged in the bombardment of Venice, and the range 
of the besieging batteries was not great enough to 
permit sliells to be dropped into the city. The en- 
gineers formed a balloon detachment, and made a 
number of Montgolfiers out of paper. These were of 
a size sufficient to carry bombs weighing 30 pounds 
for half an hour before coming down. These war 
balloons were taken to the windward side of the city, 
and after a pilot balloon had been floated over the 
])oint where the bombs were to fall, and the time 
consumed in the flight ascertained, the fuses of the 
bouibs were set for the same time, and the war bal- 
loons were released. The actual damage done by the 
dropping of these bombs was not great, but the moral 
effect upon the people of the city was enormous. The 
balloon detachment changed its position as the wind 
changed, and many shells were exploded in the heart 



MILITARY AERONAUTICS. 367 

of the city^ one of them in the market place. Bnt 
the destruction wrought was insignificant as com- 
pared with that usually resulting from cannonading. 
As these little Montgolfiers were sent up unmanned, 
perhaps they are not strictly entitled to be dignified 
by the name of war balloon, being only what in this 
day would be called aerial bombs. 

The next use of the balloon in warfare was by 
Napoleon III, in 1859. He sent up Lieutenant 
Godard, formerly a manufacturer of balloons, and 
Nadar, the balloonist, at Castiglione. It was a tour 
of observation only, and Godard made the important 
discovery that the inhabitants were gathering their 
flocks of domestic animals and choking the roads 
with them, to oppose the advance of the French. 

The first military use of balloons in the United 
States was at the time of the Civil War. Within 
a month after the war broke out, Professor T. S. C. 
Lowe, of Washington, put himself and his balloon 
at the command of President Lincoln, and on June 
18, 1861, he sent to the President a telegram from 
the balloon — the first record of the kind in history. 

After the defeat at Manassas, on July 24, 1861, 
Professor Lowe made a free ascent, and discovered 
the true position of the Confederates, and proved 



368 



MILITARY AERONAUTICS, 



the falsity of rumors of their advance. The organ- 
ization of a regular balloon corps followed, and it 
was attached to McClellan's army, and used in rec- 




A small captive military balloon fitted for observation. A cylinder of com- 
pressed hydrogen to replace leakage is seen at F. 



onnoitring before Yorktown. The balloons were 
operated under heavy artillery fire, but were not 
injured. 



MILITARY AERONAUTICS, 369 

On May 24th, for the first time in history, a gen- 
eral officer — in this case, General Stoneman — directed 
the fire of artillery at a hidden enemy from a balloon. 

Later in the month balloons were used at Chicka- 
hominy, and again at Fair Oaks and Richmond, be- 
ing towed about by locomotives. On the retreat from 
before Richmond, McClellan's balloons and gas gen- 
erators were captured and destroyed. 

In 1869, during the siege of a fort at Wakamatzu 
by the Imperial Japanese troops, the besieged sent 
up a man-carrying kite. After making observations, 
the officer ascended again with explosives, with which 
he attempted to disperse the besieging army, but 
without success. 

During the siege of Paris, in 1870, there were 

several experienced balloonists shut up in the city, 

and the six balloons at hand were quickly repaired 

and put to use by the army for carrying dispatches 

and mail beyond the besieging lines. The first trips 

were made by the professional aeronauts, but, as they 

could not return, there was soon a scarcity of pilots. 

Sailors, and acrobats from the Hippodrome, were 

pressed into the service, and before the siege was 

raised 64 of these postal balloons had been dispatched. 

Fifty-seven out of the 64 landed safely on French 
24 



370 



MILITARY AERONAUTICS. 



territory, and fulfilled their mission; 4 were cap- 
tured by the Germans ; 1 floated to l^orway ; 1 was 
lost, with its crew of two sailors, who faithfully 
dropped their dispatches on the rocks near the Liz- 
ard as they were swept out to sea ; and 1 landed on 
the islet Hoedic, in the Atlantic. In all, 164 per- 




Spherical canister of compressed hydrogen for use in inflating military balloons. 
A large number of these canisters may be tapped at the same time and the 
inflation proceed rapidly; a large balloon being filled in two hours. 



sons left Paris in these balloons, always at night, 
and there were carried a total of 9 tons of dispatches 
and 3,000,000 letters. At first dogs were carried 
to bring back replies, but none ever returned. Then 
carrier pigeons were used successfully. Replies were 
set in type and printed. These printed sheets were 



MILITARY AERONAUTICS. 371 

reduced by photography so that 16 folio pages of 
print, containing 32,000 words, were reduced to a 
space of 2 inches by IJ inches on the thinnest of 
gelatine film. Twenty of these films were packed 
in a quill, and constituted the load for each pigeon. 
Wlien received in Paris, the films were enlarged by 
means of a magic lantern, copied, and delivered to 
the persons addressed. 

In more recent times the French used balloons at 
Tonkin, in 1884; the English, in Africa, in 1885; 
the Italians, in Abyssinia, in 1888; and the United 
States, at Santiago, in 1898. During the Boer War, 
in 1900, balloons were used by the British for di- 
recting artillery fire, and one was shot to pieces by 
well-aimed Boer cannon. At Port Arthur, both the 
Japanese and the Russians used balloons and man- 
carrying kites for observation. The most recent use 
is that by Spain, in her campaign against the Moors, 
in 1909. 

The introduction of compressed hydrogen in com- 
pact cylinders, which are easily transported, has sim- 
plified the problem of inflating balloons in the field^ 
and of restoring gas lost by leakage. 

The advent of the dirigible has engaged the active 
attention of the war departments of all the civilized 



372 



MILITARY AERONAUTICS. 



nations, and experiments are constantly progressing, 
in many instances in secret. It is a fact at once 
significant and interesting, as marking the rapidity 
of the march of improvement, that the German Gov- 
ernment has lately refused to bny the newest Zep- 
pelin dirigible, on the ground that it is built of alu- 




The German military non-rigid dirigible Parseval II. It survived the storm 
which wrecked the Zeppelin II in April, 1910, and reached its shed at 
Cologne in safety. 



minum, v^hich is out of date since the discovery of 
its lighter alloys. 

Practically all the armies are being provided with 
fleets of aeroplanes, ostensibly for use in scouting. 
But there have been many contests by aviators in 
" bomb-dropping " which have at least proved that 
it is possible to drop explosives from an aeroplane 
with a great degree of accuracy. The favorite target 



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374 MILITARY AERONAUTICS. 

in these contests has been the life-sized outline of 
a battleship. 

Glenn Curtiss, after his trip down the Hudson 
from Albany, declared that he could have dropped 
a large enough torpedo upon the Poughkeepsie 
Bridge to have wrecked it. His subsequent feats 
in dropping " bombs/' represented by oranges, have 
given weight to his claims. 

By some writers it is asserted that the successful 
navigation of the air will guarantee universal peace ; 
that war with aircraft will be so destructive that 
the whole world will rise against its horrors. Against 
a fleet of flying machines dropping explosives into 
the heart of great cities there can be no adequate 
defence. 

On the other hand, Mr. Hudson Maxim declares 
that the exploding of the limited quantities of dyna- 
mite that can be carried on the present types of 
aeroplanes, on the decks of warships would not do 
any vital damage. He also says that many tons of 
dynamite might be exploded in Madison Square, 
New York City, with no more serious results than 
the blowing out of the windows of the adjacent build- 
ings as the air within rushed out to fill the void 
caused by the uprush of air heated by the explosion. 



376 MILITARY AERONAUTICS. 

As yet, the only experience that may be instanced 
is that of the Russo-Japanese War, where cast-iron 
shells, weighing 448 lbs., containing 28 lbs. of pow- 
der, were fired from a high angle into Port Arthur, 
and did but little damage. 

In 1899 the Hague Conference passed a resolution 
prohibiting the use of aircraft to discharge projectiles 
or explosives, and limited their use in war to ob- 
servation. Germany, France, and Italy withheld 
consent upon the proposition. 

In general, undefended places are regarded as ex- 
empt from attack by bombardment of any kind. 

IsTevertheless, there are straws which show how 
the wind is blowing. German citizens and clubs 
which purchase a type of airship approved by the 
War Office of the German Empire are to receive a 
substantial subsidy, with the understanding that in 
case of war the aircraft is to be at the disposal of 
the Government. Under this plan it is expected that 
the German Government will control a large fleet of 
ships of the air without being obliged to own them. 

And, in France, funds were raised recently, by 
popular subscription, sufficient to provide the nation 
with a fleet of fourteen airships (dirigibles) and 
thirty aeroplanes. These are already being built. 



MILITARY AERONAUTICS. 377 

and it will not be long before France will have the 
largest air-fleet afloat. 

The results of the German manreuvres with a fleet 
of four dirigibles in a night attack upon strong for- 
tresses have been kept a profound secret^ as if of 
great value to the War Office. 

In the United States the Signal Corps has been 
active in operating the Baldwin dirigible and the 
Wright aeroplanes owned by the Government. To 
the latter^ wireless telegraphic apparatus has been 
attached and is operated successfully when the ma- 
chines are in flight. In addition, the United States 
Aeronautical Reserve has been formed, with a large 
membership of prominent amateur and professional 
aviators. 

Some military experts, however, assert that the 
dirigible is hopelessly outclassed for warfare by the 
aeroplane, wdiich can operate in winds in which the 
dirigible dare not venture, and can soar so high above 
any altitude that the dirigible can reach as to easily 
destroy it. Another argument used against the avail- 
ability of the dirigible as a war-vessel is, that if it 
were launched on a wind which carried it over the 
enemy's country, it might not be able to return at 
sufficient speed to escape destruction by high-firing 



378 MILITARY AERONAUTICS. 

guns, even if its limited fuel capacity did not force 
a landing. 

Even the observation value of the aircraft is in 
some dispute. The following table is quoted as giv- 
ing the ranges possible to an observer in the air : 



Altitude in feet. Distance of horizon. 

500 . 30 miles. 

1,000 42 " 

2,000 59 " 

3,000 72 " 

4,000 84 " 

5,000 93 



iC 



As a matter of fact, the moisture ordinarily in 
the air effectually limits the range of both natural 
vision and the use of the camera for photographing 
objects on the ground. The usual limit of practical 
range of the best telescope is eight miles. 

All things considered, however, it is to be expected 
that the experimenting by army and navy officers all 
over the world will lead to such improvement and 
invention in the art of navigating the air as will 
develop its benevolent, rather than its malevolent, 
possibilities — '^ a consummation devoutly to be 
wished." 



Chapter XVI 11. 
BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 

The Wright Brothers — Santos — Dumont — Louis Bleriot — Ga- 
briel Voisin — Leon Delagrange — Henri Farman — Robert 
Esnault-Pelterie — Count von Zeppelin — Glenn H. Curtiss 
— Charles K. Hamilton — Hubert Latham — Alfred Leblanc 
— Claude Grahame- White — Louis Paulhan — Clifford B. 
Harmon — Walter Brookins — John B. Moisant — J. Arm- 
strong Drexel — Ralph Johnstone. 

ON January 1^ 1909, it would have been a brief 
task to write a few biographical notes about 
the '' prominent '' aviators. At that date there were 
but five who had made flights exceeding ten minutes 
in duration — the Wright brothers, Farman, Dela- 
grange, and Bleriot. At the close of 1910 the roll of 
aviators who have distinguished themselves by win- 
ning prizes or breaking previous records has increased 
to more than 100, and the number of qualified pilots 
of flying machines now numbers over 300. The im- 
possibility of giving even a mention of the notable 
airmen in this chapter is apparent, and the few whose 

names have been selected are those who have more 
379 



380 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 

recently in our own country come into larger public 
notice, and tlioso of liic pioneers whose names Avill 
never lose their first prominence. 

THE W^KUniT BROTHERS. 

The Wright Brothers have so systematically 
linked their individual personalities in all their work, 
in private no less than in public, that the brief life 
story to be told liere is but one for them both. In 
fact, until Wilbur went to Frnuce in 1008, and 
Orville to Washington, the nearest approach to a 
separation is illustrated by a historic remark of 
AVilbur's to an acquaintance in Dnyton, one after- 
noon: *^' Orville ilew 2i miles yesterday; I am going 
to beat that to-dny/' And he did — by 8 miles. 

Their early life in their home town of Dayton, 
Ohio, wns unmarked by signiiicnnt incident. They 
were interested in bicycles, and at length went into 
the business of repairing and selling these machines. 

Their attention seems to have been strongly turned 
to the subject of human flight by the death of Lilieu- 
thal in August, ISOG, at which tiuie the press pub- 
lished some of the results of his experiments. A 
magazine article by Octave Chanute, himself nu ex- 
])erimenter with gliders, led to correspondence with 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 381 

him, and the Wrights began a series of similar in- 
vestigations with models of their own building. 

By 1900 they had succeeded in flying a large glider 
by running with a string, as with a kite, and in the 
following year they had made some flights on their 
gliders, of which they had several of differing types. 
For two years the Wrights studied and tested and 
disproved nearly every formula laid down by scien- 
tific works for the relations of gravity to air, and 
finally gave themselves up to discovering by actual 
trial w^hat the true conditions were, and to the im- 
provement of their gliders accordingly. Meanwhile 
they continued their constant personal practice in 
the air. 

The most of this experimental Avork was done at 
Kitty Hawk, N. C, for the reason that there the 
winds blow more uniformly than at any other place 
in the United States, and the great sand dunes there 
gave the Wrights the needed elevation from which 
to leap into the wind with their gliders. Consequent- 
ly, w^hen at last they were ready to try a machine 
driven by a motor, it was at this secluded spot that 
the first flights ever made by man with a heavier- 
than-air machine took place. On December 17, 1903, 
their first machine left the ground under its own 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 383 

power, and remained in the air for twelve seconds. 
From this time on progress was even slower than 
before, on acconnt of the complications added by the 
motive power ; bnt by the time another year had 
passed they w^ere making flights which lasted five 
minutes, and liad their machine in such control that 
they conld fly in a circle and make a safe landing 
within a few feet of the spot designated. 

On the 5th of October, 1905, Wilbur Wright made 
his historic flight of 24 miles at Dayton, Ohio, beat- 
ing the record of Orville, made the day before, of 
21 miles. The average speed of these flights was 38 
miles an hour. 2^o contention as to the priority of the 
device known as wang-warping can ever set aside the 
fact that these long practical flights were made more 
than a year before any other man had flown 500 feet, 
or had remained in the air half a minute, wdth a 
heavier-than-air machine driven by power. 

The Wrights are now at the head of one of the 
largest aeroplane manufactories in the world, and 
devote the larger part of their time to research work 
in the line of the navigation of the air. 



384 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS, 

ALBERTO SANTOS-DUMONT. 

Alberto Santos-Dumont was born in Brazil in 
1877. When but a lad he became intensely inter- 
ested in aeronautics, having been aroused by witness- 
ing the ascension at a show of an ordinary hot-air 
balloon. Within the next few years he had made 
several trips to Paris, and in 1897 made his first 
ascent in a balloon with the balloon builder Machu- 
ron, the partner of the famous Lachambre. 

In 1898 he began the construction of his notable 
series of dirigibles, which eventually reached twelve 
in number. With his l^o, 6 he won the $20,000 prize 
offered by M. Deutsch (de la Meurthe) for the first 
trip from the Paris Aero Club's grounds to and 
around the Eiffel Tower in 30 minutes or less. The 
distance was nearly 7 miles. It is characteristic of 
M. Santos-Dumont that he should give $15,000 of 
the prize to relieve distress among the poor of Paris, 
and the remainder to his mechanicians who had built 
the balloon. 

His smallest dirigible was the TTo. 9, which held 
7,770 cubic feet of gas ; the largest was the l^o. 10, 
which held 80,000 cubic feet. 

In 1905, when Bleriot, Voisin, and their comrades 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 385 

were striving to accomplish flight with machines heav- 
ier than air, Santos-Dnmont turned his genius upon 
the same problem, and on August 14, 1906, he made 
his first flight with a cellular biplane driven by a 24 
horse-power motor. On November 13th of the same 
year he flew 720 feet with the same machine. These 
were the first flights of heavier-than-air machines in 
Europe, and the first public flights anywhere. Later 
he turned to the monoplane type, and with ^^ La 
Demoiselle " added new laurels to those already won 
with his dirigibles. 

LOUIS BLEEIOT. 

Louis Bleriot, designer and builder of the cele- 
brated. Bleriot monoplanes, and himself a pilot of the 
first rank, was born in Cambrai, France, in 1872. 
He graduated from a noted technical school, and soon 
attached himself to the group of young men — all un- 
der thirty years of age — who were experimenting 
with gliders in the effort to fly. His attempts at first 
were with the flapping-wing contrivances, but he 
soon gave these up as a failure, and devoted his en- 
ergy to the automobile industry; and the excellent 
Bleriot acetylene headlight testifies to his construct- 
ive ability in that field. 
25 



386 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS, 

Attracted by the experiments of M. Ernest Arch- 
deacon he joined his following, and with Gabriel 
Voisin engaged in building gliders of the biplane 
type. By 1907 he had turned wholly to the mono- 
plane idea, and in April of that year made his first 
leap into the air with a power-driven monoplane. 
By September he had so improved his machine that 
he was able to fly 600 feet, and in June, 1908, he 
broke the record for monoplanes by flying nearly a 
mile. Again and again he beat his own records, and 
at length the whole civilized world was thrilled by 
his triumphant flight across the British Channel on 
July 25, 1909. 

The Bleriot machines hold nearly all the speed 
records, and many of those in other lines of achieve- 
ment, and M. Bleriot enjoys the double honor of 
being an eminently successful manufacturer as well 
as a dauntless aviator of heroic rank. 

GABRIEL VOISIN. 

Gabriel Voisiisr, the elder of the two Voisin broth- 
ers, was born in 1879 at Belleville-sur-Saone, near 
the city of Lyons, France. He was educated as an 
architect, but early became interested in aeronautics, 
and engaged in gliding, stimulated by the achieve- 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 387 

ments of Pilcher^ in England, and Captain Ferber, 
in his own country. He assisted M. Archdeacon in 
his experiments on the Seine, often riding the gliders 
which were towed by the swift motor boats. 

In 1906 he associated himself with his brother in 
the business of manufacturing biplane machines, and 
in March, 1907, he himself made the first long flight 
with a power-driven machine in Europe. This aero- 
plane was built for his friend Delagrange, and was 
one in which the latter was soon breaking records 
and winning prizes. The second machine was for 
Farman, who made the Voisin biplane famous by 
winning the Deutsch- Archdeacon prize of $10,000 
for making a flight of 1,093 yards in a circle. 

The Voisin biplane is distinctive in structure, and 
is accounted one of the leading aeroplanes of the 
present day. 

LEON^ DELAGRANGE. 

Leon Delagrange was born at Orleans, France, 
in 1873. He entered the School of Arts as a student 
in sculpture, about the same time that Henri Far- 
man went there to study painting, and Gabriel Voi- 
sin, architecture. He exhibited at the Salon, and 
won several medals. In 1905, he took up aeronau- 
tics, assisted at the experiments of M. Archdeacon. 



388 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 

His first aeroplane was built by Voisin^ and he made 
his first flight at Issy, March 14, 1907. Less than 
a month later — on April 11 — ^he made a new record 




Leblanc, Bleriot, and Delagrange, 

(from left to right) in aviation dress, standing in front of the Bleriot machine 

which crossed the English Channel. 

for duration of flight, remaining in the air for 9 
minutes and 15 seconds — twice as long as the pre- 
vious record made by Farman. 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 389 

At Rheims, in 1909, he appeared with a Bleriot 
monoplane^ and continued to fly with that type of 
machine nntil his death. At Doncaster, England, 
he made the w^orld record for speed up to that time, 
travelling at the rate of 49.9 miles per hour. He 
was killed at Bordeaux, France, in January, 1910, 
by the fall of his machine. 

HENRI FARMAN. 

Henri Farm an, justly regarded as the most prom- 
inent figure in the aviation world today, Avas born 
•in France in 1873. His father was an Englishman. 

While a mere boy he became locally famous as a 
bicycle racer, and later achieved a wider fame as a 
fearless and skillful driver in automobile races. In 
1902 he won the Paris-Vienna race. 

In September, 1907, he made his first attempt to 
fly, using the second biplane built by his friend Ga- 
briel Voisin, and in the following year he won with 
it the Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of $10,000. He 
then built a machine after his own ideas, which more 
resembles the Wright machine than the Voisin, and 
with it he has won many prizes, and made many 
world records. Demands for machines, and for 
teaching the art of handling them, have poured in 



390 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 

upon him, necessitating a continual increase of man- 
ufacturing facilities until it may safely be said that 
he has the largest plant for building flying machines 
in the world, turning out the largest number of ma- 
chines, and through his school for aviators is in- 
structing a larger number of pupils annually than 
any other similar establishment. 

ROBERT ESNAULT-PELTERIE. 

Robert Esnault-Pelterie was born in 1880, 
and educated in the city of Paris. He early showed 
a mechanical turn of mind, and was interested par- 
ticularly in scientific studies. He became an en- 
thusiast in matters aeronautic, and devoted himself 
to the construction of gasoline engines suitable for 
aviation purposes. After satisfying his ideal in this 
direction with the now famous '' R-E-P '' motor, he 
designed a new type of flying machine which is 
known as the '^ R-E-P monoplane.'' His first flights 
were made at Buc in October, 1907, and while they 
were shorty they proved the possibility of steering a 
flying machine so that it would describe a curved 
line — at that time a considerable achievement among 
European aviators. In April, 1908, he flew for f 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 391 

of a mile, and reached a height of 100 feet. This 
feat eclipsed all previous records for monoplanes. 

His fame, however, rests upon his motors, which 
are quite original in design and construction. 

COUNT FERDIJN^Al^D VON ZEPPELIN. 

Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin was born in 
1838, on the shores of the Lake Constance, where 
his great airships have had their initial trials. 

It is an interesting fact that Count von Zeppelin 
made his first balloon ascension in a war-balloon at- 
tached to the army corps commanded by his friend, 
Carl Schurz, during the Civil War. 

It was only after years of absorbing study of all 
that human knowledge could contribute that Count 
von Zeppelin decided upon the type of dirigible which 
bears his name. Under the patronage of the King 
of Wiirtemberg he began his first airship, having 
previously built an immense floating shed, which, 
swinging by a cable, always had its doors facing away 
from the wind. 

The successful flights of the series of magnificent 
Zeppelin airships have been marvellous in an age 
crowded with wonders. And the misfortune which 
has followed close upon their superb achievements 



392 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 

with complete destruction would long ago have un- 
done a man of less energy and courage than the 
dauntless Count. It should be borne in mind, how- 
ever, that of the hundreds of passengers carried in 
his ships of the air, all have come to land safely — a 
record that it would be difficult to match with any 
other form of travel. The accidents which have de- 
stroyed the Zeppelins have never happened in the 
air, excepting only the wrecking of the Deutschlaiid 
by a thunderstorm. 

The indefatigable Count is now constructing an- 
other airship with the new alloy, electron, instead 
of aluminum. He estimates that 5,000 pounds' 
weight can be saved in this way. 

CAPTAI]^ THOMAS S. BALDWIN. 

Captain^ Thomas S. Baldwii^, balloonist and 
aviator, was born in Mississippi in 1855. His first 
aeronautical experience was as a parachute rider from 
a balloon in the air. He invented the parachute he 
used, and received for it a gold medal from the Bal- 
loon Society of Great Britain. Exhibiting this para- 
chute. Captain Baldwin made an extensive tour of 
the civilized Avorld. 

In 1892 he built his first airship, a combination 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 393 

of a balloon, a screw propeller, and a bicycle, the last 
to furnish the motive power. It was not until 1902, 
when he installed an automobile engine in his air- 
ship, that he succeeded in making it sail. It was not 
jet dirigible, however ; but after two years of devising 
and experimenting, he sailed away from Oakland, 
Cal., on August 2, 1904, against the wind, and after 
a short voyage, turned and came back to his balloon- 
shed. From this time on he made several successful 
dirigibles, and in 1908 he met all the requirements 
of the United States Government for a military diri- 
gible, and sold to it the only dirigible it possesses. 

Pie became interested in the experiments of Curtiss 
and McCurdy at Hammondsport, in 1908, and aided 
in building the remarkable series of biplanes with 
w^hich record flights were made. The newer design, 
known as the Baldwin biplane, is unique in the piv- 
oted balancing plane set upright above the upper 
plane, a device entirely distinct from the warping or 
other manipulation of horizontal surfaces for the pur- 
pose of restoring lateral balance. 

GLENN HAMMOND CURTISS. 

Glenn Hammond Curtiss was born at Ham- 
mondsport, ]Sr. Y., on the shore of Lake Keuka, in 



394 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 

1878. From boyhood he was a competitor and win- 
ner in all sorts of races where speed was the supreme 
test. By nature a mechanic, he became noted for his 
ingenious contrivances in this line, and built a series 
of extremely fast motor-cycles, with one of which he 
made the record of one mile in 26f seconds, which 
still stands as the fastest mile ever made by man with 
any form of mechanism. 

Through the purchasing of one of his light en- 
gines by Captain Baldwin for his dirigible, Curtiss 
became interested in aeronautical matters, and soon 
built a glider with Avhich he sailed down from the 
Hammondsport hills. The combination of his motor 
and the glider Avas the next step, and on July 4, 1908, 
he flew 1^ miles with the June Bug, winning the 
Scientific American trophy. 

Learning that the United States was not to be rep- 
resented at the Rheims meet in August, 1909, he 
hastily built a biplane and went there. He won the 
first prize for the course of 30 kilometres (18.6 
miles), second prize for the course of 10 kilometres, 
the James Gordon Bennett cup, and the tenth prize 
in the contest for distance. From Rheims he went 
to Brescia, Italy, and there won the first prize for 
speed. In all these contests he was matching his 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 395 

biplane against monoplanes which were acknowledged 
to be a faster type than the biplane. 

On May 29, 1910, Mr. Curtiss made the first stated 
aeroplane tour to take place in this country, travel- 
ling from Albany to New York City, 137 miles, with 
but one stop for fuel. With this flight he won a 
prize of $10,000. 

He has made many other notable flights and stands 
in the foremost rank of the active aviators. At the 
same time he is busily engaged in the manufacture 
of the Curtiss biplane and the Curtiss engine, both 
staple productions in their line. 



1/ CHARLES KEENEY HAMILTON. 

Charles Keenly Hamilton is justly regarded 
as one of the most skilful of aviators. He was born 
in Connecticut in 1881, and showed his '^ bent '' by 
making distressing, and often disastrous, leaps from 
high places with the family umbrella for a parachute. 

In 1904 he worked with Mr. Israel Ludlow, who 
at that time w^as experimenting with gliders of his 
own construction, and when Mr. Ludlow began tow- 
ing them behind automobiles, Hamilton rode on the 
gliders and steered them. Later he became inter- 



396 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 

ested in ballooning, and made a tour of Japan with 
a small dirigible. 

He early became famous in the aviation world by 




Hamilton and Latham. 



his spectacular glides from a great height. He has 
said that the first of these was unintentional, but his 
motor having stopped suddenly while he was high 
in the air, he had only the other alternative of fall- 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 397 

ing vertically. The sensation of the swift gliding 
having pleased him, he does it frequently '' for the 
fun of it." These glides are made at so steep an 
angle that they have gained the distinctive name, 
'^ Hamilton dives." 

Hamilton came most prominently before the pub- 
lic at large with his flight from Governor's Island to 
Philadelphia and back, on June 13, 1910. Follow- 
ing close upon Curtiss's flight from Albany to New 
York, it was not only a record-breaking achievement, 
but helped to establish in this country the value of 
the aeroplane as a vehicle for place-to-place journey- 



IIUBERT LATHAM. 

Hubert Latham, the famous Antoinette pilot, is 
a graduate of Oxford. His father was a naturalized 
Frenchman. 

His first aeronautical experience was as companion 
to his cousin, Jacques Faure, the balloonist, on his 
famous trip from I^ondon to Paris in 6^ hours, the 
fastest time ever made between the two places until 
the Clement-Bayard dirigible surpassed it by a few 
minutes on October 16, 1910. 

The Antoinette monoplane with which M. Latham 



398 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 

has identified himself began with the ingenious en- 
gine of Levavasseur, which was speedily made use 
of for aeroplanes by Santos-Dumont, Bleriot, and 
Farman. Levavasseur also had ideas about aero- 
planes, and persuaded some capitalists to back him 
in the enterprise. When it was done, no one could 
be found to fly it. Here M. Latham, a lieutenant of 
miners and sappers in the French army, stepped into 
the breach, and has made a name for himself and 
for the Antoinette machine in the forefront of the 
progress of aviation. 

After winning several contests he set out, on July 
19, 1909, to cross the British Channel. After flying 
about half the distance he fell into the sea. Six 
days later Bleriot made the crossing successfully, 
and Latham made a second attempt on July 27th, 
and this time got within a mile of the Dover coast 
before he again came down in the water. 

He has shown unsurpassed daring and skill in 
flying in gales blowing at 40 miles per hour, a rec- 
ord which few other aviators have cared to rival. 

ALFRED LEBLANC. 

Alfred Leblanc, the champion cross-country flier 
of the world, was born in France in 1879. By pro- 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 399 

fession he is a metallurgist. A friend of Bleriot, 
he became interested in monoplane flying, the 
more readily because he was already a skilled bal- 
loonist. 

At the time Bleriot made his historic flight across 
the British Channelj Leblanc preceded him, and, 
standing on the Dover shore, signalled Bleriot where 
to strike the land. 

He organized Bleriot's school for aviators at Pan, 
and became its director. Its excellence is exhibited 
in the quality of its pupils; among them Chavez, 
Morane, and Aubrun. 

The achievement through which Leblanc is most 
widely known is his winning of the 489-mile race 
over the northern part of France in August, 1910, 
and with the victory the prize of $20,000 offered. 

CLAUDE GRAHAME-WHITE. 

Claude Grahame- White, the most famous of 
British aviators, learned to fly in France, under the 
tutelage of M. Bleriot. Having accomplished so 
much, he went to Mourmelon, the location of Far- 
man's establishment, and made himself equally pro- 
ficient on the Farman biplane. While in France he 
taught many pupils, among them Armstrong Drexel. 



400 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS, 

Returning to England, he opened a school for Eng- 
lish aviators. 

He came into prominent public notice in his con- 
test with Paulhan in the race from London to Man- 
chester, and although Paulhan won the prize, 
Grahame- White received a full share of glory for 
his plucky persistence against discouraging mishaps. 

At the Boston-Harvard meet, in September, 1910, 
Grahame-White carried off nearly all the prizes, and 
in addition won for himself a large measure of per- 
sonal popularity. 

On October 14th he flew from the Benning Race 
Track 6 miles away, over the Potomac River, around 
the dome of the Capitol, the Washington Monument, 
and over the course of Pennsylvania Avenue, up to 
the State, War, and ]Sravy Department building, 
alighting accurately with his 40-foot biplane in the 
60-foot street. Having ended his " call," he mounted 
his machine and rose skilfully into the air and re- 
turned to his starting point. 

At the Belmont Park meet, in October, Grahame- 
White captured the international speed prize with 
his 100-horse-power Bleriot monoplane, and finished 
second in the race around the Statue of Liberty, 
being beaten by only 43 seconds. 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS, 401 

LOUIS PAULHAN. 

Louis Paulhan was, in January, 1909, a me- 
chanic in Moiirmelon, France, earning the good 
wages in that country of $15 per week. He became 
an aviator, making his first flight on July 10, 1909, 
of 1| miles. Five days later he flew over 40 miles, 
remaining in the air 1 hour 17 minutes, and rising 
to an altitude of 357 feet, then the world's record. 
He flew constantly in public through the remainder 
of 1909, winning many prizes and breaking and 
making records. 

In January, 1910, he was the most prominent avi- 
ator at the Los Angeles meet, and there made a new 
world's record for altitude, 4,166 feet. 

Within the 13 months and 3 weeks (up to Octo- 
ber 1, 1910) that he has been flying, he has won 
over $100,000 in prizes, besides receiving many 
handsome fees for other flights and for instruction 
to pupils. 

CLIFFORD B. HARMON. 

Clifford B. Harmon has the double distinction 

of being not only the foremost amateur aviator of 

America, but his feats have also at times excelled 

those of the professional airmen. On July 2, 1910, 
26 



402 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 

Mr. Harmon made a continuous flight of more than 
2 hours^ breaking all American records, and this he 
held for several months. 

Mr. Harmon's first experience in the air was as 
a balloonist, and in this capacity he held the dura- 
tion record of 48 hours 26 minutes for a year. On 
this same voyage, at the St. Louis Centennial, he 
made a new record in, America for altitude attained, 
24,400 feet. 

At the Los Angeles aviation meet, in January, 
1910, where he went with his balloon New York, he 
met Paulhan, and became his pupil. At that meet 
Paulhan made a new world's record for altitude with 
a Farman biplane, and this machine Mr. Harmon 
bought, and brought to Mineola, L. L, where he 
practised assiduously, crowning his minor achieve- 
ments by flying from there across Long Island Sound 
to Greenwich, Conn. 

At the Boston-Harvard aviation meet, in Septem- 
ber, 1910, Mr. Harmon won every prize offered to 
amateur contestants. 

WALTER BROOKIl^S. 

Walter Brookins is one of the youngest of noted 
aviators. He was born in Dayton, Ohio, in 1890, 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 403 

and went to school to Miss Katherine Wright, sister 
of the Wright brothers. Young AValter was greatly 
interested in the experiments made by the Wrights, 
and Orville one day promised him that when he gTew 
up they would build a flying machine for him. 
Brookins appeared at Dayton in the early part of 
1910, after several years' absence, during which he 
had grown up, and demanded the promised flying 
machine. The Wrights met the demand, and devel- 
oped Brookins into one of the most successful Amer- 
ican aviators. 

Brookins's first leap into prominence was at the 
Indianapolis meet, in June, 1910, where he made a 
new world's record for altitude, 4,803 feet. This 
being beaten soon after in Europe, by J. Armstrong 
Drexel, with 6,600 feet, Brookins attempted, at At- 
lantic City, in September, to excel DrexeFs record, 
and rose to a height of 6,175 feet, being forced to 
come down by the missing of his motor. 

On September 29, 1910, he left Chicago for 
Springfield, 111. He made two stops on the way 
for repairs and fuel, and reached Springfield in 7 
hours 9 minutes elapsed time. His actual time in 
the air was 5 hours 47 minutes. The air-line dis- 
tance between the two cities is 187 miles, but as 



404 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS, 

Brookins flew in the face of a wind blowing 10 miles 
an lionr, he actually travelled 250 miles. During 
the journey Brookins made a new cross-country rec- 
ord for America in a continuous flight for 2 hours 
38 minutes. 



JOHN B. MOISANT. 

JoHTir B. MoiSANT is an architect of Chicago, born 
there of Spanish parentage in 1883. Becoming in- 
terested in aviation, he went to France in 1909, and 
began the construction of two aeroplanes, one of them 
entirely of metal. He started to learn to fly on a 
Bleriot machine, and one day took one of his mechan- 
icians aboard and started for London. The mech- 
anician liad never before been up in an aeroplane. 
After battling with storms and repairing consequent 
accidents to his machine, Moisant landed his passen- 
ger in London three weeks after the start. It was 
the first trip between the two cities for an aeroplane 
carrying a passenger, and although Moisant failed 
to win the prize which had been offered for such a 
feat, he received a great ovation, and a special medal 
was struck for him. 

At the Belmont Park meet, in October, 1910, 
Moisant, after wrecking his own machine in a gale, 



BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 405 

climbed into Leblanc's Bleriot, Avhich had been se- 
cured for him but a few minutes before, and made 
the trip around the Statue of Liberty in New York 
Bay and returned to the Park in 34 minutes 38 sec- 
onds. As the distance is over 34 miles, the speed was 
nearly a mile a minute. This feat won for him, and 
for America, the grand prize of the meet — $10,000. 

J. ARMSTRONG DREXEL. 

J. Armstrong Drexel is a native of Philadel- 
phia. He was taught to fly a Bleriot machine at 
Pan by Grahame- White, and he has frequently sur- 
passed his instructor in contests where both took part. 
At the English meets in 1910 he won many of the 
prizes, being excelled in this respect only by Leon 
Morane. 

At Lanark, Scotland, he established a new world's 
record for altitude, 6,600 feet. At the Belmont Park 
meet he passed his former record with an altitude 
of 7,185 feet, making this the American record, 
though it had been excelled in Europe. At Phila- 
delphia, November 23, 1910, he reached an altitude 
of 9,970 feet, according to the recording barometer 
he carried, thus making a new world's record. This 
record was disputed by the Aero Club, and it may 



406 BIOGRAPHIES OF PROMINENT AERONAUTS. 

be reduced. A millionaire, he flies for sheer love of 
the sport. 

EALPH JOHNSTONE. 

Ralph Johnstone was born in Kansas City, Mo., 
in 1880. He became an expert bicycle rider, and 
travelled extensively in many countries giving exhi- 
bitions of trick bicycle riding, including the feat 
known as '^ looping the loop.'' He joined the staff 
of the Wright Brothers' aviators in April, 1910, and 
speedily became one of the most skilful aeroplane 
operators. 

He made a specialty of altitude flying, breaking 
his former records day after day, and finally, at the 
International Aviation Meet at Belmont Park, L. I., 
in October, 1910, he made a new world's altitude 
record of 9,714 feet, surpassing the previous record 
of 9,121 feet made by Wynmalen at Mourmelon, 
on October 1st. 

Johnstone was instantly killed at Denver, Col., 
on November 14, 1910, by a fall Avith his machine 
owing to the breaking of one of the wings at a 
height of 800 feet. 



Chapter XIX. 
CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

HOW feeble the start, and how wondroiisly rapid 
the growth of the art of flying ! I^othing can 
better convey a full idea of its beginnings and its 
progress than the recorded facts as given below. 
And these facts show beyond dispute that the credit 
of laying the foundation for every accomplishment 
in the entire record must be largely due to the men 
whose names stand alone for years as the only aero- 
planists in the world — the Wright Brothers. 

After the first flight on December 17, 1903, the 
Wrights worked steadily toward improving their ma- 
chines, and gaining a higher degree of the art of 
balancing, without which even the most perfect ma- 
chines would be useless. Most of their experiment- 
ing having been done in secret, the open record of 
their results from time to time is very meagre. It 
may be noted, however, that for nearly three years 

no one else made any records at all. 

407 



408 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

The next name to appear on the roll is that of 
Santos-Dumont, already famous for his remarkable 
achievements in building and navigating dirigible 
balloons^ or airships. His first aeroplane flight was 
on August 22, 1906, and was but little more than 
rising clear of the ground. 

It was nearly seven months later when Delagrange 
added his name to the three then on the list of pra(3- 
tical aviators. In about five months Bleriot joined 
them, and in a few more weeks Farman had placed 
his name on the roll. It is interesting to compare 
the insignificant figures of the first flights of these 
men wdth their successive feats as they gain in ex- 
perience. 

Up to October 19, 1907, the flights recorded had 
been made with machines of the biplane type, but on 
that date, E. Esnault-Pelterie made a few short 
flights with a monoplane. A month later Santos- 
Dumont had gone over to the monoplane type, and 
the little group of seven had been divided into two 
classes — five biplanists and two monoplanists. 

On March 29, 1908, Delagrange started a new 
column in the record book by taking a passenger up 
with him, in this case, Farman. They flew only 453 
feet, but it was the beginning of passenger carrying. 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 409 

During the first six months of 1908 only two more 
names were added to the roll — Baldwin and Mc- 
Curdy — both on the biplane side. On July 4, 1908, 
Curtiss comes into the circle with his first recorded 
flight, in which he used a biplane of his own con- 
struction. The same day in France, Bleriot changed 
to the ranks of the monoplane men, wdth a flight 
measured in miles, instead of in feet. Two days 
later, Farman advanced his distance record from 
1.24 miles to 12.2 miles, and his speed record from 
about 21 miles an hour to nearly 39 miles an hour. 
In two days more, Delagrange had taken up the first 
woman passenger ever carried on an aeroplane; and 
a month later. Captain L. F. Ferber had made his 
first flights in public, and added his name to the 
growing legion of the biplanists. 

In the latter part of 1908, the Wrights seem to 
take possession of the record — Orville in America, 
and Wilbur in Europe — surpassing their own previ- 
ous feats as well as those of others. Bleriot and Far- 
man also steadily advance their performances to a 
more distinguished level. 

The record for 1909 starts off with three new 
names — Moore-Brabazon, and Legagneux in France, 
and Cody in England. Richardson, Count de Lam- 



410 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

bert^ Calderara^ Latham, Tissandier, Rougier, join 
the ranks of the aviators before the year is half gone, 
and a few days later Somnier and Paiilhan add their 
names. 

Of these only Latham flies the monoplane type of 
machine, but at the Rheims tournament Delagrange 
appears as a monoplanist, increasing the little group 
to four ; but, with Le Blon added later, they perform 
some of the most remarkable feats on record. 

The contest at Rheims in August is a succession of 
record-breaking and record-making achievements. 
But it is at Blackpool and Doncaster that the most 
distinct progress of the year is marked, by the dar- 
ing flights of Le Blon and Latham in fierce gales. 
Spectators openly charged these men with foolhardi- 
ness, but it was of the first importance that it should 
be demonstrated that these delicately built machines 
can be handled safely in the most turbulent weather ; 
and the fact that it has been done successfully will 
inspire every other aviator with a greater degree of 
confidence in his ability to control his machine in 
whatever untoward circumstances he may be placed. 
And such confidence is by far the largest element in 
safe and successful flying. 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 411 



NOTABLE AVIATION RECORDS TO CLOSE OF 1910 

December 17, 1903 — Wilbur Wright with biplane, 
at Kitty Hawk, N. C, makes the first successful 
flight by man with power-propelled machine, a 
distance of 852 feet, in 59 seconds. 

November 9, 190 J^ — Wilbur Wright with biplane, at 
Dayton, O., flies 3 miles in 4 minutes and 30 sec- 
onds. (He and Orville made upward of 100 un- 
recorded flights in that year.) 

September 26, 1905 — Wilbur Wright with biplane 
" White Flier,'' at Dayton, O., flies 11 miles in 
18 minutes and 9 seconds. 

September 29, i 9(95— Orville Wright, with ''White 
Flier," at Dayton, O., flies 12 miles in 19 min- 
utes and 55 seconds. 

October 3, i 905— Wilbur Wright, with "White 
Flier " at Dayton, O., flies 15 miles in 25 min- 
utes and 5 seconds. 

October ^, 1905 — Orville Wright with biplane 
''White Flier,'' at Dayton, O., flies 21 miles in 
33 minutes and 17 seconds. 

October 5, i905— Wilbur Wright with "White 



412 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

Flier/' at Dayton, O., flies 24 miles in 38 min- 
utes. (He made many unrecorded flights in that 
year. ) 

August 22, 1906 — A. Santos-Dumont with biplane 
at Bagatelle, France, made his first public flight 
with an aeroplane, hardly more than rising clear 
of the ground. 

September IJ^, 1906 — Santos-Dumont with biplane, 
at Bagatelle, flies for 8 seconds. 



biiift.t^i^ ^iH^I 






Santos-Dumont flying at Bagatelle in his cellular biplane. 

October 2Jf, 1906 — Santos-Dumont with biplane, at 
Bagatelle, flies 160 feet in 4 seconds. 

November 13, 1906 — Santos-Dumont with biplane, 
at Bagatelle, flies 722 feet in 21 second 3. This 
feat is recorded as the first aeroplane flight made 
in Europe. 

March 16, 1907 — Leon Delagrange with first Voisin 
biplane, at Bagatelle, flies 30 feet. 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 413 

August 6, 1907 — Louis Bleriot with a Langley ma- 
chine, at Issy, France, flies 470 feet. 

October 15, 1907 — Henry Farman with biplane, at 
Issy, flies 937 feet in 21 seconds. 

October 19, 1907 — R. Esnault-Pelterie with mono- 
plane, at Bnc, France, makes short flights. 

October 26, 1907 — Farman with biplane, at Issy, 
flies 2,529 feet in a half circle, in 52 seconds. 

November 17, 1907 — Santos-Dnmont with biplane, 
at Issy, makes several short flights, the longest 
being about 500 feet. 

November 21, 1907 — Santos-Dumont with mono- 
plane at Bagatelle, makes several short flights, 
the longest being about 400 feet. 

January 13, ^905— Farman with biplane, at Issy, 
makes the first flight in a circular course — 3,279 
feet in 1 minute and 28 seconds. 

March 12, 1908— F, W. Baldwin with biplane " Red 
Wing," at Hammondsport, I^. Y., flies 319 feet. 

March 21, 1908 — Farman with biplane, at Issy, flies 
1.24 miles in 3 minutes and 31 seconds. 

March 29, 1908 — Delagrange with biplane, at 
Ghent, Belgium, makes first recorded flight with 
one passenger (Farman), 453 feet. 

April 11, 1908 — Delagrange with biplane at Issy, 



414 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

flies 2.43 miles in 6 minutes and 30 seconds^ win- 
ning the Archdeacon cnp. 

May 18, 1908— J, A. D. McCnrdy with biplane 
'' White Wing " at Hammondsport, flies 600 
feet. 

May 27, 1908 — Delagrange with biplane^ at Rome, 
in the presence of the King of Italy, flies 7.9 
miles in 15 minutes and 25 seconds. 




The early Voisin biplane flown by Farman at Issy. 

May 30, 1908 — Farman with biplane, at Ghent, 
flies 0.77 miles with one passenger (Mr. Arch- 
deacon). 

June 5, 1908 — Esnanlt-Pelterie with monoplane, at 
Bnc, flies 0.75 miles, reaching an altitude of 100 
feet. 

June 22, 1908 — Delagrange with biplane, at Milan, 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 415 

Italy, flies 10.5 miles in 16 niiniites and 30 sec- 
onds. 
July Jfy 190S — Glenn H. Cnrtiss with biplane, at 
Hammondsport, flies 5,090 feet, in 1 niinnte and 
42 seconds, winning Scientific American cnp. 




The "June Bug" flown by Curtiss winning the Scientific American cup, 
July 4, 1908. 



July -4, 1908 — Bleriot with monoplane, at Issy, flies 
3.7 miles in 5 minutes and 47 seconds, making 
several circles. 

July 6, 1908 — Farman in biplane, at Ghent, flies 



416 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

12.2 miles in 19 minutes and 3 seconds, winning 
the Armengand prize. 

July 8, 1908 — Delagrange with biplane, at Turin, 
Italy, flies 500 feet with the first woman passen- 
ger ever carried on an aeroplane — Mrs. Peltier. 

August 5, 1908 — Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le 
Mans, France, makes several short flights to 
prove the ease of control of his machine. 

August 5, 1908 — L. F. Ferber with biplane, at Issy, 
makes flrst trial flights. 

September 6, 1908 — Delagrange with biplane, at 
Issy, flies 15.2 miles in 29 minutes and 52 sec- 
onds, beating existing French records. 

September 8, 1908 — Orville Wright with biplane, at 
Fort Myer, Va., flies 40 miles in 1 hour and 2 
minutes, rising to 100 feet. 

September 9, 10^ 11, 1908 — Orville Wright with bi- 
plane, at Fort Myer, makes several flights, in- 
creasing in duration from 57 minutes to 1 hour 
ten minutes and 24 seconds. 

September 12, 1908 — Orville Wright with biplane, 
at Fort Myer, flies 50 miles in 1 hour, 14 
minutes and 20 seconds, the longest flight on 
record. 

September 12, 1908 — Orville Wright with biplane. 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 417 

at Fort Myer, flies for 9 minutes and 6 seconds 
with one passenger (Major Sqnier), making a 
new record. 

September 17, 1908 — Orville Wright with biplane, 
at Fort Myer, flies 3 miles in 4 minutes, with 
Lieutenant Selfridge. The machine fell: Self- 
ridge was killed and Wright severely injured. 

September 19, 1908 — L. F. Ferber with biplane, at 
Issy, *flies 1,640 feet. 

September 21 ^ 1908 — Wilbur Wright with biplane, 
at Auvours, flies 41 miles in 1 hour and 31 min- 
utes. 

September 25, 1908 — Wilbur Wright with biplane, 
at Le Mans, France, flies 11 minutes and 35 sec- 
onds, with one passenger, making a new record. 

October 3, i 90S— Wilbur Wright with biplane, at 
Le Mans, France, flies 55 minutes and 37 sec- 
onds, with one passenger, making new record. 

October 6, 1908 — Wilbur Wright with biplane, at Le 
Mans, flies 1 hour 4 minutes and 26 seconds, 
with one passenger, breaking all records. 

October 10, 1908 — Wilbur Wright with biplane, at 
Auvours, flies 46 miles in 1 hour and 9 minutes, 
with one passenger (Mr. Painleve). Also carried 
35 others on different trips, one at a time. 
27 



418 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

Odoher 21, 1908 — Bleriot with monoplane, at 
Toury, France, flies 4.25 miles in 6 minutes and 
40 seconds. 

October 30^ 1908 — Farman with biplane at Chalons, 
France, makes a flight across country to Rheims 
— 17 miles in 20 minutes. 

Odoher 31, 1908 — Farman with biplane, at Cha- 
lons, flies 23 minutes, reaching a height of 82 
feet. 

Odoher 31, 1908 — Bleriot with monoplane, at 
Toury, flies 8.7 miles to Artenay, in 11 minutes, 
lands, and returns to Toury. 

Decemher 18^ 1908 — Wilbur Wright with biplane, at 
Auvours, flies 62 miles in 1 hour and 54 min- 
utes, rising to 360 feet — making a world record. 

Decemher 31 ^ 1908 — Wilbur Wright with biplane, 
at Le Mans, flies 76.5 miles in 2 hours 18 min- 
utes and 53 seconds, making a new world record, 
and winning the Michelin prize. The distance 
traversed (unofficial) is claimed to have been ac- 
tually over 100 miles. 

January 28, 1909 — Moore-Brabazon with biplane, 
at Chalons, flies 3.1 miles, in practice with a 
Voison machine. 

February H, 1909 — Legagneux with biplane, at 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS, 419 

Mourmeloiij France, flies 1.2 miles, and in a sec- 
ond flight of 6.2 miles (10 kilometres), traces 

two circles. 
February 22, 1909 — S. F. Cody with biplane, at Al- 

dershot, England, flies 1,200 feet in a 12-mile 

wind. 
February 23, 1909— J. A. D. McCurdy, with the 

biplane '^ Silver Dart,'' at Baddeck, Cape Breton, 

flies 2,640 feet. 
February 2Jf, 1909 — McCnrdy, with the biplane 

'^ Silver Dart," at Baddeck, flies 4.5 miles. 
February 2Jf, 1909 — Moore-Brabazon, with biplane, 

at Issy, flies 1.2 miles, tracing two circles. 
February 28, 1909 — Moore-Brabazon made several 

flights at Issy. 
March 8, i 909— McCurdy, with biplane " Silver 

Dart," at Baddeck, made five flights, the longest 

about 8 miles in 11 minutes and 15 seconds. 
March 10, 1909 — Santos-Dumont, with monoplane 

" Libellule," at Bagatelle, flies 1,300 feet. 
March 11, 1909— \Y, J. Richardson with a new 

form of aeroplane, at Dayton, O., flies for 38 

minutes, rising to a height of over 300 feet. 
March 11, 1909 — McCurdy with biplane ''Silver 

Dart," at Baddeck, flies 19 miles in 22 minutes. 



420 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

March 17, 1909— Count de Lambert (pupil of Wil- 
bur Wright) made his first flight alone in bi- 
plane, at Pau, France. He remained in the air 
3 minutes. 

March 18, 1909 — McCurdy, with biplane " Silver 
Dart/' at Baddeck, flies 16 miles, completing a 
record of an even 1,000 miles in the air within 
a period of 10 months. 

March 18, 1909— F. W. Baldwin with biplane " Sil- 
ver Dart/' at Baddeck, made a short flight. 

March 20, 1909 — Wilbur Wright, with biplane, at 
Pau, succeeds in rising from the ground without 
the starting device previously used. He makes 
several flights. 

March £Jf, 1909 — Count de Lambert with biplane, 
at Pau, flies 15.6 miles in 27 minutes and 11 
seconds. 

April 10, 1909 — Santos-Dumont with monoplane 
'' Demoiselle,'' at St. Cyr, France, flies 1.2 miles. 

April 13, 1909 — Count de Lambert with biplane, at 
Pau, flies for 1 minute and 30 seconds, with one 
passenger (Leon Delagrange). 

April 16, 1909 — Wilbur Wright with biplane, at 
Rome, Italy, made many flights, taking up many 
passengers, one at a time. 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS, 421 

April 21 ,- 1909 — Legagneux with Voisiii biplane, at 
Vienna, flies 2.5 miles in 3 minutes and 26 sec- 
onds. 

April 28, 1909 — Lieutenant Mario Calderara (pupil 
of Wilbur Wright) with biplane, at Rome, made 
his first public flight, remaining in the air 10 
minutes. 

April SO, 1909 — Moore-Brabazon with biplane, in 
England, flies 4.5 miles. 

May llf, 1909 — S. F. Cody, with the army biplane, 
at Aldershot, flies 1 mile. 

May 19, 1909 — Hubert Latham, with Antoinette 
monoplane, at Chalons, flies 1,640 feet. 

May 20, 1909 — Paul Tissandier (pupil of Wilbur 
Wright) with biplane at Pau, flies 35.7 miles. 

May 23, 1909 — Delagrange, with biplane, at Ju- 
vissy, flies 3.6 miles in 10 minutes and 18 sec- 
onds, winning the Lagatineri prize. 

May 23, 1909 — Henri Rougier, with biplane, at Ju- 
vissy, flies 18.6 miles (30 kilometres). 

May 30, 1909 — Bleriot, with monoplane at Issy, 
flies 8.7 miles. 

June 5, 1909 — Latham, with monoplane, at Chalons, 
flies for 1 hour 7 minutes and 37 seconds in wind 
and rain. 



422 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS, 

June 6, 1909 — Latham, with monoplane, at Juvissy, 
flies 10 miles across country. 

June 12, 1909 — Latham, with monoplane, at Ju- 
vissy, flies 30 miles in 39 minutes, winning the 
Gonpy prize. 

June 12^ 1909 — Delagrange, with biplane, at Jn- 
vissy, makes cross country flight of 3.7 miles. 

June 12, 1909 — Bleriot, with monoplane, at Juvissy, 
flies 984 feet, with tw^o passengers — Santos-Du- 
mont and Fournier. 

June 13 J, 1909 — Ferber, with Voisin biplane, at Ju- 
vissy, flies 3.1 miles in 5 minutes and 30 sec- 
onds. 

June 19 y 1909 — Santos-Dumont, with monoplane, at 
Issy, makes several flights. 

July 4, 1909 — Roger Sommer with biplane, at Cha- 
lons, flies 3.75 miles on Farman machine. 

July 10, 1909 — Louis Paulhan, with biplane, at 
Douai, France, makes his first flight — 1.25 miles. 

July 13^ 1909 — Curtiss, with biplane, at Mineola, 
L. I., flies 1.5 miles in 3 minutes. 

July 13 y 1909 — Bleriot, with monoplane, at Monde- 
sir, makes a flight of 26 miles across country in 
44 minutes and 30 seconds. 

July 15, 1909 — Paulhan with biplane, at Douai, 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 423 

flies for 1 minute and 17 seconds, soaring to an 
altitude of 357 feet. 

Juhj n, i909— Orville Wright, with biph^ne, at 
Fort Myer, flies 16 minutes and 40 seconds, at a 
speed of 40 miles an hour. 

July 17, 1909 — Curtiss, with biplane, at Mineola, 
makes 15 miles in 21 minutes, describing circles 
in both directions, as in the figure 8. 

July 18 J 1909 — Curtiss, with biplane, at Hempstead 
Plains, L. I., flies 29^ miles in 52 minutes and 
30 seconds, a flight exceeded only by the Wrights, 
in America, and Bleriot, Latham, and Paulhan, 
in Europe. 

July 18, 1909 — Farman, with biplane, at Chalons, 
flies for 1 hour and 23 minutes, making his first 
long flight. 

July 18, 1909 — Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, 
makes his longest flight — 1 hour and 40 minutes. 

July 19^ 1909 — Latham, with monoplane, at Calais, 
France, makes his first attemipt to cross the Chan- 
nel to Dover. He flies 11 miles, and then his 
machine falls into the sea. 

July 19, 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at Douai, 
makes a cross-country flight of 12.1 miles in 22 
minutes and 53 seconds. 



424 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

July 20, 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplane, at 
Fort Myer, flies 1 hour and 20 minutes. 

July 21, 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplane, at 
Fort Myer, flies 1 hour and 29 minutes. 

July 21, 1909 — E. Lefebvre, with biplane, at La 
Haye, France, flies 2 miles. 

July 21, 1909 — S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Alder- 
shot, flies 4 miles. 

July 23^ 1909 — Farman, with biplane, at Chalons, 
makes a cross-country flight to Suippes — 40 
miles in 1 hour and five minutes. 

July 23 y 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at Douai, 
flies 43.5 miles in 1 hour 17 minutes and 19 
seconds. 

July 2It-, 1909 — Curtiss in biplane, at Hempstead 
Plains, flies 25 miles in 52 minutes and 30 sec- 
onds, winning the Scientific American cup the 
second time. 

July 25, 1909 — Bleriot, with monoplane, at Calais, 
flies to Dover, England, across the English Chan- 
nel — 32 miles in 37 minutes. 

July 21^ 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplane, at 
Fort Myer, flies 1 hour and 13 minutes, with one 
passenger, securing acceptance of Wright ma- 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 425 

chine by U. S. Government on the duration spe- 
cifications. 

July 21 , 1909 — Latham, with monoplane, at Calais, 
flies 20 miles in a second attempt to cross the 
English Channel. When near Dover the machine 
fell. 

July 21 , 1909 — Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, 
flies to Vadenay and back — 25 miles in 1 hour 
23 minutes and 30 seconds. 

July 30, 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplane, at 
Fort Myer, established a world record with one 
passenger in a cross-country flight to Shuter's 
Hill and back — about 10 miles in 14 minutes and 
40 seconds, a speed of about 42 miles an hour — 
winning a bonus of $25,000 from the U. S. Gov- 
ernment. 

August ly 1909 — Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, 
flies 1 hour 50 minutes and 30 seconds, at an 
average height of 80 feet, over a distance esti- 
mated at 70 miles, surpassing all French records. 

August 2, 1909 — McCurdy, with a new type of ma- 
chine, at Petawawa, makes several flights. 

August 2, 1909 — F. W. Baldwin, with biplane, at 
Petawawa, makes several short flights. 

August 2, 1909 — Sommer, with biplane, at Chalons, 



426 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

flies to Siiippes — 9 miles^ at the rate of 45 miles 
an hour. 

August Jf, 1909 — Sommer^ with biplane, at Chalons, 
in the effort to beat Wilbur Wright's record, 
flies for 2 hours minutes and 10 seconds 
(Wright's record flight was 2 hours 20 minutes 
and 23 seconds, made on December 31, 1908). 

August 5, 1909 — E. Bunau-Varilla, with Voisin bi- 
plane, at Chalons, flies for 15 minutes. 

August 6, 1909 — Legagneux, with biplane, at Stock- 
holm, flies with one passenger, 3,280 feet. 

August 6, 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at Dunker- 
que, France, flies for 18 minutes and 20 seconds, 
reaching an altitude of 200 feet. 

August 7, 1909 — Paulhan, with Voisin biplane, at 
Dunkerque, flies 23 miles in 33 minutes. 

August 7, 1909 — Sommer, with Voisin biplane, at 
Chalons, flies for 2 hours 27 minutes and 15 
seconds, making new world record for duration. 

August 13, 1909 — Charles F. Willard, with biplane, 
at Hempstead Plains, made the longest cross- 
country flight on record for America — about 12 
miles in 19 minutes and 30 seconds. The break- 
ing of his engine caused him to come down. He 
landed without mishap. 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 427 

August 22, 1909 — Sommer, with biplane, at Rheims, 
France, flies 1 hour 19 minutes and 30 seconds. 

August 22, 1909 — Legagneux, with biplane, at 
Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 9 minutes and 56 sec- 
onds, winning third prize for speed over course 
of 10 kilometres. 

August 22, 1909 — Tissandier, with biplane, at 
Rheims, flies 18.6 miles in 29 minutes. (He 
won with this record the third prize for speed 
over 30 kilometres.) 

August 22, 1909 — E. Bunau-Varilla, with biplane, 
at Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 13 minutes and 30 
seconds. (With this record he Avon the thirteenth 
prize for sjDoed over course of 10 kilometres.) 

August 23, 1909 — Delagrange, with monoplane, at 
Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 11 minutes and 4 sec- 
onds. (He won the tenth prize for speed over 
10 kilometres.) 

August 23 y 1909 — Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, 
flies 6.2 miles in 8 minutes and 35 seconds — a 
speed of 42.3 miles an hour — beating the record 
for speed over course of 10 kilometres. 

August 23, 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at Rheims, 
flies 18.6 miles in 38 minutes and 12 seconds, 
reaching an altitude of 295 feet. 



428 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS, 

August 23, 1909 — Paulhan^ with biplane, at 
Rheims, flies 34.8 miles in an endurance test. 

August 25, 1909 — Paulhan^ Avitli biplane, at Rheims, 
flies 82 miles in 2 hours 43 minutes and 25 
seconds. (With this record he won the third 
prize for duration of flight.) 

August 25, 1909 — Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, 
flies 6.2 miles in 8 minutes and 11 seconds, again 
reducing the time for 10 kilometres. 

August 25, 1909 — Bleriot, with monoplane, at 
Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 8 minutes and 4 sec- 
onds, making a new record for speed over the 
course of 10 kilometres. 

August 26, 1909 — Curtiss, in biplane, at Rheims, 
flies 19 miles in 29 minutes. (With this record 
he won the tenth prize for duration of flight.) 

August 26, 1909 — Count de Lambert, with biplane, 
at Rheims, flies 72 miles in 1 hour and 52 min- 
utes. (With this record he won the fourth prize 
for duration of flight.) 

August 26, 1909 — Latham, with monoplane, at 
Rheims, flies 96.5 miles in 2 hours 17 minutes 
and 21 seconds. (With this record he won the 
second prize for duration of flight.) 

August 27, 1909 — Farman, with biplane, at Rheims, 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS, 429 

flies 112 miles in 3 hours 4 minutes and 57 sec- 
onds. (This record won for him the first prize 
for duration of flight.) 




Latham flying in his Antoinette at Rheims. To view this properly the picture 
should be held overhead. 

August 27, 1909 — Latham, with monoplane, at 
Eheims, flies to an altitude of 508 feet. (With 
this record he won first prize for altitude.) 

August 21 , 1909 — Delagrange, with monoplane, at 
Rheims, flies 31 miles. (With this record he won 
the eighth prize for duration of flight.) 



430 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

August 27, 1909 — Sommer, with biplane, at Rheims, 
flies 37 miles. He won the seventh prize for dis- 
tance. 

August 21, 1909 — Tissandier, with biplane, at 
Eheims, flies 69 miles. (This record won for him 
the sixth prize for distance.) 

August 27 y 1909 — Lefebvre, with bipkne, at 
Rheims, flies 12.4 miles in 20 minutes and 47 
seconds, exhibiting great daring and skill. (He 
was fined for ^^recklessness.'') 

August 27, 1909 — Bleriot, with monoplane, at 
Rheims, flies 25 miles in 41 minutes. (This rec- 
ord won for him the ninth prize for distance 
flown.) 

August 28, 1909 — Lef ebvre, with biplane, at Rheims, 
makes a spectacular flight for 11 minutes with 
one passenger. 

August 28, 1909 — Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, 
flies 12.4 miles in 15 minutes and 56 seconds, 
winning the Gordon Bennett cup. 

August 28, 1909 — Bleriot, with monoplane, at 
Rheims, flies 6.2 miles in 7 minutes and 48 sec- 
onds. (With this record he won the first prize 
for speed over course of 10 kilometres.) 

August 29, 1909 — Farman, with biplane, at Rheims, 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 431 

flies 6.2 miles witl; "']'' P^^^^^S^^^' ^^ 1^ ™i^"t«^ 

1 oA 1 '? winninp!: a prize, 

and 39 seconr' ' ^ J 

A i 6)Q -^^^^' — Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, 

n- 18.6 miles in 23 minutes and 30 seconds, 
tiie^ 

^VVitli this record he won the first prize for 
speed over course of 30 kilometres.) 

August 29, 1909 — Curtiss, with biplane, at Rheims, 
flies 6.2 miles in 7 minutes and 51 seconds, win- 
ning the second prize for speed over course of 10 
kilometres. 

August 29, 1909 — Rougier, with biplane, at Rheims, 
rises to a height of 180 feet, winning the fourth 
prize for altitude. 

August 29, 1909 — E. Bunau-Varilla, with biplane, 
at Rheims, flies 18.6 miles in 38 minutes and 
31 seconds. (With this record he won the 
eighth prize for speed over course of 30 kilo- 
metres. ) 

August 29, 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplane, at 
Berlin, makes several short flights. 

August 29, 1909— S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Al- 
dershot, flies 10 miles with one passenger. 

September J^, 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplane, 
at Berlin, flies for 55 minutes. 

September C, 1909 — Sommer, with biplane, at Nan- 



432 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

cy, France, flies 25 miiCs in 35 minutes. He 
takes up a number of passenger'^; one at a time. 

September 7, 1909 — Lefebvre, with bip'Jane, at Ju- 
vissy, is killed by the breaking of his jnachine 
in the air after he had flown 1,800 feet, 

September 8, 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplan^, 
at Berlin, flies 17 minutes with one passenger — 
Captain Hildebrandt. 

September 8, 1909 — S. F. Cody, with biplane, at Al- 
dershot, flies to Farnborough and back — 46 miles 
in 1 hour and 3 minutes. This is the first re- 
corded cross-country flight in England. 

September 9, 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplane, 
at Berlin, flies for 15 minutes with one passen- 
ger — Captain Englehardt. 

September 9, 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at Tour- 
nai, Belgium, flies 12.4 miles in 17 minutes. 

September 9, 1909 — Rougier, with biplane, at Bres- 
cia, flies 12 minutes and 10 seconds, soaring to 
a height of 328 feet. 

September 10, 1909 — Sommer, with biplane, at 
l^ancy, flies 18 miles, accompanying troops on 
review. 

September 11, 1909 — Sommer, with biplanfe, at 
Nancy, flies to Lenoncourt — 24 miles. 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS, 433 

September 11, 1909 — CurtisSj with biplane^ at Bres- 
cia, flies 31 miles in 49 minutes and 24 seconds, 
winning the first prize for speed. 

September 12, 1909 — Rougier, with biplane, at 
Brescia, flies 31 miles in 1 hour 10 minutes 
and 18 seconds, soaring to a height of 380 feet. 

September 12, 1909 — Calderara, with biplane, at 
Brescia, flies 6.3 miles with one passenger, win- 
ning a prize. 

September 13, 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at 
Tournai, flies to Taintiguies and back in 1 hour 
and 35 minutes. 

September 13, 1909 — Santos-Dumont, with mono- 
plane, at St. Cyr, France, flies 5 miles in 12 
minutes, to Buc, to visit Maurice Guffroy, on a 
bet of $200 that each would be the first to visit 
the other. 

September 15, 1909 — Ferber, w^ith biplane, at Bou- 
logne, France, flies to Wimeroux — 6 miles in 9 
minutes. 

September 15, 1909 — Calderara, with biplane, at 
Brescia, flies 5.6 miles with one passenger, win- 
ning the Oldofredi prize. 

September 17, 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplane, 

at Berlin, flies for 54 minutes and 26 seconds, 
28 



434 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

rising to an altitude of 765 feet (estimated). He 
afterward flew for 47 minutes and 5 seconds with 
Captain Engiehardt. 

September 17, 1909 — Santos-Dumont, with mono- 
plane, at St. Cyr, flies 10 miles in 16 minutes 
across country. 

September 17, 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at Os- 
tend, Belgium, flies 1.24 miles in 3 minutes and 
16 seconds, along the water front and out over 
the sea. 

September 18, 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplane, 
at Berlin^ establishes a world record by flying for 
1 hour 35 minutes and 47 seconds, with one 
passenger — Captain Engiehardt. 

September 18, 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at Os- 
tend, flies for 1 hour over sea front, circling over 
the water ; winning a prize of $5,000. 

September 20, 1909 — Rougier, with biplane, at 
Brescia, broke the record for high flying by 
reaching an altitude of 645 feet (ofiicial measure- 
ment). 

September 20, 1909 — Calderara, with biplane, at 
Brescia, flie^ 31 miles in 50 minutes and 51 sec- 
onds, winning the second prize for speed. 

September 22 y 1909 — Captain Eerber, with a bi- 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 435 

plane, at Boulogne, flies 1 mile, when, his en- 
gine breaking in the air, his machine falls and 
he is killed. 

Seiptember 25, 1909 — Wilbur Wright, with biplane, 
at New York, flies from Governor's Island aronnd 
the Statue of Liberty. 

September 21, 1909 — Latham, in monoplane, at 
Berlin, flies 6.5 miles across country in 13 min- 
utes. 

September 28, 1909 — Rougier, with biplane, at Ber- 
lin, flies 31 miles in 54 minutes, soaring to an al- 
titude of 518 feet. 

September 29, 1909 — Latham in monoplane, at Ber- 
lin, flies 42 miles in 1 hour and 10 minutes, 
winning the second prize for distance. 

September 29, 1909 — Rougier, with biplane, at Ber- 
lin, flies 48 miles in 1 hour and 35 minutes. 

September 29^ 1909 — Curtiss, with biplane, at ITew 
York, makes flights about the harbor from Gov- 
ernor's Island. 

September 30, 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplane, 
at Berlin, soars to a height of 902 feet, making 
a world record for altitude. 

September 30, 1909 — Latham, with monoplane, at 
Berlin, flies 51 miles in 1 hour and 23 minutes. 



436 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

October 1, 1909 — Roiigier, with biplane, at Berlin^ 
flies 80 miles in 2 hours and 38 minutes, win- 
ning the first prize for distance and speed. 

Odoher 2, 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplane, at 
Berlin, makes a flight of 10 minutes' duration 
with the Crown Prince of Germany. 

October 3, 1909 — Farman, with biplane, at Berlin, 
flies 62 miles in 1 hour and 40 minutes, winning 
the third prize for distance and speed. 

October J/-, 1909 — Orville Wright, with biplane, at 
Berlin, soared to an altitude of 1,600 feet, mak- 
ing a world record. 

October ^, 1909 — Wilbur Wright, with biplane, at 
]S[ew York, flies from Governor's Island to 
Grant's Tomb and back — 21 miles in 33 minutes 
and 33 seconds. 

October 10, 1909 — -Curtiss, with biplane, at St. 
Louis, Mo., makes several flights at the Centen- 
nial celebration. 

October 10, i909— Paulhan, with biplane, at Pt. 
Aviation, flies 21.5 miles in 21 minutes and 48 
seconds. 

October 12, 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at Pt. 
Aviation, flies 3.6 miles in 6 minutes and 11 sec- 
onds, winning the prize for slowest flight. 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 437 

October 16, 1909 — Curtiss, with biplane, at Chica- 
go, makes exhibition flights at 45 miles per hour. 

October 16, 1909 — Sommer, with biplane, at Don- 
caster, England, flies 9.7 miles in 21 minutes and 
45 seconds, making the record for Great Britain. 

October 16^ 1909 — Delagrange, with monoplane, at 
Doncaster, flies 5.75 miles in 11 minutes and 25 
seconds. 

October 16, 1909 — Cody, with biplane, at Doncas- 
ter, flies 3,000 feet, when his machine is wrecked, 
and he is injured, 

October 18, 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at Black- 
pool, England, flies 14 miles in 25 minutes and 
53 seconds. 

October 18, 1909 — Rougier, with biplane, at Black- 
pool, flies 17.7 miles in 24 minutes and 43 sec- 
onds, winning the second prize. 

October 18, 1909 — Farman, with biplane, at Black- 
pool, flies 14 miles in 23 minuteSe 

October 18, 1909 — Le Blon, with monoplane, at 
Doncaster, flies 22 miles in 30 minutes, in a rain- 
storm, Avinning the Bradford cup. 

October 18, 1909 — Count de Lambert, with biplane, 
at Juvissy, flies 31 miles to the Eiffel Tower in 
Paris, and back, in 49 minutes and 39 seconds. 



438 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS 

October 19, 1909 — Le Blon^ with monoplane, at 
Doncaster, flies 15 miles in a gale. 

October 19, 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at Black- 
pool/ flies 15.7 miles in 32 minutes and 18 sec- 
onds, winning the third prize. 

October 20, 1909 — Farman, with biplane, at Black- 
pool, flies 47 miles in 1 hour, 32 rpinutes, and 
16 seconds, winning the first prize — $10,000. 

October 20, 1909 — Le Blon, with monoplane, at 
Doncaster, makes a spectacular flight in a fierce 
gale. 

October 21, 1909 — Count de Lambert, with biplane, 
at Pt. Aviation, files 1.25 miles in 1 minute 
and 57 seconds, winning prize of $3,000 for 
speed. 

October 22, 1909 — Latham, with monoplane, at 
Blackpool, files in a squally gale blowing from 
30 to 50 miles an hour. When headed into the 
wind the machine moved backward in relation 
to points on the ground. Going before the wind, 
it passed points on the ground at a speed of near- 
ly 100 miles an hour. This fiight, twice around 
the course, is the most difficult feat accomplished 
by any aviator up to this date. 

October 26, 1909 — Sommer, Avith biplane, at Don- 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 439 

caster, flies 29.7 miles in 44 minutes and 53 sec- 
onds, winning the Whitworth cup. 

October 26, 1909 — Delagrange, with monoplane, at 
Doncaster, flies 6 miles in 7 minutes and 36 sec- 
onds — a speed of over 50 miles an hour. 

October 30, 1909 — Moore-Brabazon, with biplane, at 
Shell Beach, England, wins a prize of $5,000 for 
flight with a British machine. 

November 3, 1909 — Farman, with biplane, at Mour- 
melon, France, flies 144 miles in 4 hours 6 min- 
utes and 25 seconds, far surpassing his previous 
best record of 112 miles in 3 hours 4 minutes 
and 57 seconds, made at Eheims, and winning 
the Michelin cup for duration and distance. 

November 19, 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at 
Mourmelon, broke the record for height by as- 
cending to 1,170 feet, in a wind blowing from 20 
to 25 miles an hour. 

November 19, 1909 — Latham, with Antoinette mono- 
plane, surpassed Paulhan's record by rising to 
an altitude of 1,333 feet. 

November 20, 1909 — Paulhan, with biplane, at 
Mourmelon, flies to Chalons and back — 37 miles 
in 55 minutes. 

December i, 1909 — Latham, with monoplane, at 



440 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS, 

Mourmelon, soars to 1^500 feet in a 40-mile 
gale. 

December 30 ^ 1909 — Delagrange;, with monoplane, 
at Juvissy, flies 124 miles in 2 lionrs and 32 min- 
utes — an average speed of 48.9 miles per hour, 
surpassing all previous records. 

December 31^ 1909 — Farman at Cliartres, France, 
flies to Orleans — 42 miles in 50 minutes. 

December 31, 1909 — Maurice Farman, at Mour- 
melon, defending his brother Henry's record 
against competing aviators, flies 100 miles in 2 
hours and 45 minutes, without a fault. The 
Michelin cup remains in his brother's possession. 

January 1 , 1910 — Latham, with Antoinette mono- 
plane, at Chalons, rises to height of 3,281 feet 
(world's record). 

January 10, 1910 — Opening of aviation meet at Los 
Angeles, Cal. 

January 12, 1910 — Paulhan, Farman biplane, at 
Los Angeles, rises to height of 4,146 feet. 
(World's record.) 

January i7, 1910 — Paulhan, Farman biplane, at 
Los Angeles, flies 75 miles in 1 hour 58 minutes 
and 27f seconds. 

February 1 , 1910 — First flight in South America. 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 441 

Bregi, Voisin biplane, makes two flights near 
Buenos Aires. 

February 1 , 1910 — Diiray, with Farman biplane, at 
Heliopolis, Egypt, flies 5 kilometres in 4 minutes 
and 12f seconds. (World's record.) 

April 8, 1910 — D. Kinet, with Farman biplane, at 
Mourmelon, flies for 2 hours 19 minutes and 4f 
seconds with passenger, covering 102 miles. 
(World's record for passenger flight.) 

April 11, 1910 — E. Jeannin, with Farman biplane, 
flies 2 hours 1 minute and 55 seconds, at Johan- 
nisthal. (German record.) 

April 15, 1910 — Opening of Xice meeting. 

April 17, 1910 — Paulhan, with Farman biplane, 
flies from Chevilly to Arcis-sur-Aube, 118 miles. 
(Record cross-country flight.) 

April 23, 1910 — Grahame-White, with Farman bi- 
plane, flies from Park Royal, London, to Rugby 
(83 miles) in 2 hours and 1 minute. Starting 
again in 55 minutes, flies to Whittington in 1 
hour and 5 minutes. 

April ^7, 1910 — Paulhan, with Farman biplane, 
starts from Hendon, London, at 5.31 p. m., flies 
within 5 mile circle and continues to Lichfield, 
arriving 8.10 p. m. (117 miles). Grahame- 



442 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

White starts from Wormwood Scrubs^ London, at 
6.29 p. M.j flies to Roade, arriving 7.55 p. m. 
(60 miles). 

April 28^ 1910 — Panlhan flies from Lichfield to 
within 5 miles of Manchester, winning the £10,- 
000 Daily Mail prize. 

April 30 y 1910 — Opening of meeting at Tours, 
France. 

May 1, 1910 — Opening of flying- week at Barcelona. 

May 3, 1910 — Wiencziers, with Antoinette mono- 
plane, twice circles the Strassburg cathedral. 

May 6, 1910 — Olieslagers, with Bleriot monoplane, 
makes flight of 18 minutes and 20 seconds above 
the sea at Barcelona, and over the fortress of 
Monjuich. 

May IS, 1910 — Engelhardt, with Wright biplane, at 
Berlin, flies 2 hours 21 minutes and 45 seconds. 
(German record.) 

May 15, 1910 — Kinet, with Farman biplane, flies 
2 hours and 51 minutes Avith a passenger at 
Mourmelon, making the world's record for pas- 
senger flight. 

May 15, 1910 — Olieslagers, with Bleriot monoplane, 
flies 15 miles over the sea at Genoa. 

May 21, 1910 — M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot mono- 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS, 443 

plane, flies from Calais to Dover in 37 minntes, 
winning £500 prize oflFered by M. M. Ruinart. 

May 28, 1910 — G. Curtiss, with Curtiss biplane, 
starts from Albany at 7.03 a. m., flies to Poiigli- 
keepsie in 1 hour and 21 minutes (70 miles). 
Leaves Poughkeepsie at 9.24 a. m., flies to Spuy- 
ten Duyvil in 1 hour and 11 minutes (67 miles). 
Rises again at 11.45, flies over New York, 
landing on Governor's Island at 12.03 p. m. 
Wins prize of $10,000 given by the New York 
^Yorld. 

June ^, 1910 — Rolls, with Short- Wright biplane, 
leaves Dover at 6.30 p. m., crosses Channel to 
French coast near Calais (7.15 p. m.), without 
landing re-crosses Channel to Dover, flies over 
harbor, circles Dover Castle, and lands at 8.10 
p. M. Wins second Ruinart prize of £80. 

Ju7ie IJf, 1910 — Brookins, with Wright biplane, at 
Indianapolis, reaches height of 4,380 feet. 
(World's record.) 

June 25^ 1910 — In Italian Parliament 25 million 
lire (about $5,000,000) voted for aviation in the 
extraordinary estimates of the Ministry of War. 

June 26, 1910 — Dickson, with Farman biplane, at 
Rouen, wins total distance prize of £2,000 and 



444 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS, 

the £400 for longest unbroken flight. Distance 
flown, 466 miles. 

June 21 , 1910 — M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot mono- 
plane, flies over Montreal for 49 minutes, cover- 
ing about 30 miles at height generally of 2,000 
feet. 

July 6, 1910 — First German military aeroplane 
makes maiden cross-country flight over Doeber- 
itz. 

July 26, 1910 — M. de Lesseps, with Bleriot mono- 
plane, starting from He de Gros Bois in the St. 
Lawrence, makes trip of 40 miles in 37 minutes. 

August 1, 1910 — Henry Farman takes up three pas- 
sengers at Mourmelon for 1 hour and 4 minutes. 

August 5, 1910 — Chavez, with Bleriot monoplane, 
attains height of 5,750 feet. World's record. 

August 1 , 1910 — Lieutenants Cammerman and Vil- 
lerme fly together from Mourmelon to Nancy, 
125 miles in 2^ hours, with a Farman biplane. 

August 11, 1910 — Drexel, with Bleriot monoplane, 
at Lanark, beats the world's record for height, 
rising 6,600 feet. 

August 21^ 1910 — First wireless telegram from a 
flying aeroplane, sent by McCurdy from a Cur- 
tiss machine in the air, at Atlantic City, N. J. 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 445 

The sending key was attached to the steering 
wheel. 

August 28, 1910 — Dnfaiix, with biphme constnicted 
by himself, flies over Lake Geneva, wins prize of 
£200 offered by Swiss Aero Club. 

August 29, 1910 — Breguet, with Bregnet monoplane, 
makes a flight at Lille, France, carrying five pas- 
sengers, establishing world's record for passenger 
flight. 

August 29, 1910 — Morane, with Bleriot monoplane, 
at Havre, beats world's altitude record, reaches 
height of 7,166 feet. 

September 2^ 1910 — Mile. Helene Dutrieux flies 
with a passenger from Ostend to Bruges, Bel- 
gium, and back to Ostend. At Bruges she cir- 
cled around the famous belfry at a height of 
1,300 feet, the chimes pealing in honor of the 
feat — the most wonderful flight so far accom- 
plished by a woman. 

Septemher S, 1910 — M. Bielovucci lands at Bor- 
deaux, France, having made the trip from Paris, 
366 miles, inside of 48 hours. The actual time 
in the air was 7 hours 6 minutes. Strong head 
winds blew him backward, forcing a landing 
three times on the way. This is the fourth long- 



446 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

est cross-country flight on record, and makes the 
world's record for sustained speed over a long 
distance. 




Mile. Helene Dutrieux. 



September 4^ 1910 — Morane, at Havre, rises to 
height of 8,469 feet. 

September 7, 1910 — Weyman, with Farman biplane, 
flies from Buc in attempt to reach the top of the 
Puy-de-D6me, lands at Volvic, 5 miles from his 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 447 

destination. Establishes world's record for flight 
with passenger, having covered 139 miles with- 
out landing. 

September 23, 1910 — Chavez crosses the Alps on a 
Bleriot monoplane from Brigue, in Switzerland, 
to Domodossola, in Italy, flying over the Simplon 
Pass. 

Odoher i, 1910 — Henri Wynmalen, of Holland, with 
a biplane at Mourmelon, France, rises to a height 
of 9,121 feet, making a new world's record for 
altitude. 

October Jf-, 1910 — Maurice Tabuteau recrossed the 
Pyrenees, in his return trip from San Sebastian 
to Biarritz, without accident or marked incident. 

October 5, 1910 — Leon Morane, the winner of nearly 
all the contests in the English meets for 1910, 
fell wdth his monoplane at Boissy St. Leger, dur- 
ing a contest for the Michelin cup, and was seri- 
ously injured. 

October 5, 1910 — Archibald Hoxsey, with a biplane, 
makes the longest continuous aeroplane flight re- 
corded in America, between Springfield, 111., and 
St. Louis, Mo. — 104 miles. 

October 12, 1910 — Alfred Leblanc, with monoplane, 
at St. Louis, flies 13 miles in 10 minutes, a speed 



448 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

of Y8 miles per hour. It was not officially re- 
corded, as a part of the distance was outside of 
the prescribed course. 

October IJj.^ 1910 — Grahame-White flies from the 
Bennings Race Track 6 miles across the Potomac 
River to the Capitol at Washington, circles the 
dome, and then circles the Washington Monu- 
ment, and finally alights with precision in Execu- 
tive Street, between the Executive Offices and the 
building of the State, Army, and liavy Depart- 
ments. After a brief call, he rose from the nar- 
row street — but 20 feet wider than his biplane — 
and returned to the race track without untoward 
incident. 

October 16, 1910 — Wynmalen flies from Paris to 
Brussels, and returns, with one passenger, within 
the elapsed time of 27 hours 50 minutes, winning 
two prizes amounting to $35,000. The distance 
is 350 miles, and the actual time in the air was 
15 hours 38 minutes. 

October 25, 1910 — J. Armstrong Drexel, with mono- 
plane, at Belmont Park, L. I., rises to height of 
7,105 feet, breaking previous records, and sur- 
passing his own record of 6,600 feet, made at 
Lanark, Scotland. 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 449 

October 26, 1910 — Ralph Johnstone^ in biplane, at 
Belmont Park, rises to the height of 7,313 feet, 
through sleet and snow, breaking the new Amer- 
ican record made by Drexel the day before. 

October 21 , 1910 — Johnstone, with biplane, at Bel- 
mont Park, rises to height of 8,471 feet, surpass- 
ing his own record of the day before and estab- 
lishing a new American record. The feat was 
performed in a gale blowing nearly 60 miles per 
hour, and the aviator was carried 55 miles away 
from his starting point before he landed. 

October 28 , 1910 — Tabutean, with biplane, at 
Etampes, France, makes a new world's endur- 
ance record of 6 hours' continuous flight, cover- 
ing a distance of 289 miles. 

October 29, 1910 — Grahame-White, with monoplane, 
at Belmont Park, wins the International speed 
race over the distance of 62.1 miles, in 1 hour 
1 minute 4f seconds. 

October 29, 1910 — Leblanc, with monoplane, at Bel- 
mont Park, makes a new world's record for speed, 
reaching 70 miles per hour during the Interna- 
tional speed race. Through a lack of fuel he lost 
the race to Grahame-White, after covering 59 

miles in 52 minutes. 
29 



450 CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 

October SO, 1910 — John B. Moisant, with mono- 
plane, wins the race from Belmont Park around 
the Statue of Liberty in N^ew York harbor, and 
the prize of $10,000. The distance is about 34 
miles, and Moisant covered it in 34 minutes 39 
seconds. 

October SO, 1910 — James Radley, with monoplane, 
at Belmont Park, wins the cross-country flight of 
20 miles in 20 minutes 5 seconds. 

October 31, 1910 — Johnstone, with biplane, at Bel- 
mont Park, rises to a height of 9,714 feet, break- 
ing the previous world's record, made by Wyn- 
malen on October 1. ^ 

October SI, 1910 — Drexel, with monoplane, racing 
for altitude with Johnstone, reaches a height of 
8,370 feet. 

October SI, 1910 — Moisant, with monoplane, at 
Belmont Park, wins the two-hour distance race 
with a record of 84 miles. His next nearest 
competitor covered but 57 miles. 

November IJf, 1910 — Eugene Ely, with biplane, 
flew from a staging on the deck of the U. S. 
Cruiser Birmingham 8 miles to the shore near 
the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. The flight was 
intended to end at the I^orfolk Navy Yard, but 



CHRONICLE OF AVIATION ACHIEVEMENTS. 451 

an accident to the propeller at starting forced 
Ely to make directly for the shore. 

November 17, 1910 — Ralph Johnstone, holder of 
the world's altitude record of 9,714 feet, was 
killed at Denver, Col., by a fall with his biplane. 

Novemher 23, 1910 — Drexel, at Philadelphia, 
reaches an altitude of 9,970 feet, passing all 
other altitude records. Coming down he made a 
straight glide of seven miles. 

December 2, 1910 — Charles K. Hamilton, at Mem- 
phis, Tenn., flies 4 miles in 3 minutes 1 second, a 
speed of 79.2 miles per hour. This is a new 
world^s record. 



Chapter XX. 
EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 

EVERY development in human progress is 
marked by a concurrent development in lan- 
guage. To express the new ideas, new words appear, 
or new meanings are given to words already in use. 
As yet, the vocabulary of aeronautics is in the 
same constructive and incomplete state as is the sci- 
ence to which it attempts to give voice, and the ut- 
most that can be done at this time is to record such 
words and special meanings as are in use in the im- 
mediate present. 

A 

Adjusting Plane — A small plane, or surface, at the 
outer end of a wing, by which the lateral (from 
side to side) balance of an aeroplane is adjusted. 
It is not connected with the controlling mechan- 
ism, as are the ailerons — nor with any automatic 
device. 

Aerodrome — A term used by Professor Langley as 
452 



EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 453 

a better name for the aeroplane ; but latterly it 
has been applied to the buildings in which air- 
ships are housed, and also in a few instances, as 
a name for the course laid out for aeronautical 
contests. 

Aerofoil — Another name for the aeroplane, suggested 
as more accurate, considering that the surfaces 
are not true planes. 

Aeronef — Another name for an aeroplane. 

Aeroplane — The type of flying machine which is 
supported in the air by a spread of surfaces or 
planes, formerly flat, and therefore truly 
'^ plane," but of late more or less curved. Even 
though not absolutely accurate, this term has re- 
sisted displacement by any other. 

Aerostat — A free balloon afloat in the air. 

Aeronate — A captive balloon. 

Aileron — A small movable plane at the wing-tips, or 
hinged between the main planes, usually at their 
outer ends, operated by the aviator to restore 
the lateral balance of the machine when dis- 
turbed. 

Air-speed — The speed of aircraft as related to the 
air in which they are moving; as distinguished 
from land-speed (which see). 



454 EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 

Alighting Gear — Devices on the under side of the 
aeroplane to take np the jar of landing after 
flight, and at the same time to check the forward 
motion at that moment. 

Angle of Entry — The angle made by the tangent to 
the curve of the aeroplane surface at its forward 
edge, with the direction, or line, of travel. 

Angle of Incidence — ^The angle made by the chord 
of the arc of a curved '' plane," or by the line of 
a flat plane, with the line of travel. 



Camber 



Andle oP 



An die 6? 
EStry 




ngle of Inci-deTT^e 

Horizontal 



Angle of Trail — The angle made by the tangent to 
the rear edge of a curved plane with the line of 
travel. 

Apteroid — A form resembling the '' short and 
broad " type of the wings of certain birds — as 
distinguished from the pterygoid (which see). 

Arc — Any part of a circle, or other curved line. 



EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 455 

Arch — The curve formed Lv bending tlie wings 
downward at the tips, leaving them higher at the 
centre of the machine. 

Aspect — The view of the top of an aeroplane as it 
appears when looked down npon from above. 

Aspiration — The (hitherto) unexplained tendency 
of a curved surface — convex side upward — to 
rise and advance when a stream of air blows 
against its forward edge and across the top. 

Attitude — The position of a plane as related to the 
line of its travel ; usually expressed by the angle 
of incidence. 

Automatic Stability — That stability which is pre- 
served by self-acting, or self-adjusting, devices 
which are not under the control of the operator, 
nor a fixed part of the machine, as are the adjust- 
ing planes. 

Aviation — Flying by means of power-propelled 
machines which are not buoyed up in the air, as 
with gas bags. 

Aviator— The operator, driver, or pilot of an aero- 
plane. 

B 

Balance — Equilibrium maintained by the control- 
ling mechanism, or by the automatic action of 



456 EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 

balancing-surfaces — as distinguished from the 
equilibrium preserved by stabilizing surfaces. 

Balancmg Plane- — The surface which is employed 
either intentionally, or automatically, to restore 
a disturbed balance. 

Biplane — The type of aeroplane which has two main 
supporting surfaces or planes, placed one above 
the other. 

Body — The central structure of an aeroplane, con- 
taining the machinery and the passenger space — 
as distinguished from the wings, or planes, and 
the tail. 

Brace — A construction member of the framing of 
aircraft Avhicli resists a compression strain in a 
diagonal direction— ^as distinguished from a 
" stay,'' or '' diagonal," which supports a pulling 
strain; also from a strut which supports a com- 
pression strain in a vertical direction. 

c 

Camber — The distance from the chord of the curve 
of a surface to the highest point of that curve, 
measured at right angles to the chord. 

Caster, or Castor, Wheel — A wheel mounted on an 
upright pivoted shaft placed forward of its axle. 



EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 457 

# 

so that it swivels automatically to assume the line 
of travel of an aeroplane when landing: used in 
the alighting gear. To be distinguished from a 
fixed wheel^ which does not swivel. 
Cell — A structure with enclosing sides — similar to 
a box without top or bottom stood upon one side. 
The vertical walls of the cell give lateral stabil- 
itVj and its horizontal walls fore-and-aft stability. 




The first Santos-Dumont biplane, constructed of cells. 

Centre of Gravity — That point of a body where its 
weight centres. If this point is supported, the 
body rests in exact balance. 

Centre of Lift — The one point at which the lifting 
forces of the flying planes might be concentrated, 
and produce the same effect. 

Centre of Resistance — The one point at which the 
forces opposing the flight of an air-craft might 
be concentrated, and produce the same result. 



458 EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 

Centre of Thrust — The one point at which the forces 
generated by the revolving propellers might be 
concentrated, and produce the same effect. 

Chassis — The under-strncture or '^ running-gear '' of 
an aeroplane. 

Chord — The straight line between the two ends of 
an arc of a circle or other curved line. 

Compound Control — A mechanical system by which 
several distinct controls are operated through dif- 
ferent manipulations of the sajne lever or steer- 
ing-wheel. 

Compression Side — That side of a plane or propeller 
blade against which the air is compressed — the 
under surface of a flying plane, and the rear sur- 
face of a revolving propeller. 

Curtain — The vertical surface of a cell — the wall 
which stands upright. 

D 

Deck — A main aeroplane surface. The term is used 
generally in describing biplanes ; as the upper 
deck, and the lower deck; or with aeroplanes of 
many decks. 

Demountable — A type of construction which permits 
a machine to be easily taken apart for transpor- 
tation. 



EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 459 

Derrick — A tower-shaped structure in which a 
weight is raised and allowed to fall to give start- 
ing impetus to an aeroplane. 

Dihedral — That form of construction in which the 
wings of an aeroplane start with an upward in- 
cline at their junction with the body of the ma- 
chine, instead of stretching out on a level. 

Dirigible — The condition of being directable, or 
steerable : applied generally to the balloons fitted 
with propelling power, or airships. 

Double Rudder — A rudder composed of two inter- 
secting planes, one vertical and the other horizon- 
tal, thus enabling the operator to steer in any di- 
rection with the one rudder. 

U ppe r Surface 




Spar 

Double-Surfaced — Planes which are covered with 
fabric on both their upper and lower surfaces, 
thus completely inclosing their frames. 

Doicn-Wind — Along with the wind ; in the direction 
in which the wind is blowing. 

Drift — The recoil of an aeroplane surface forced 
through the air : also the tendency to float in the 
same direction as the wind. 



460 EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 

E 

Elevator — A shorter name for the elevating planes 
or elevating rudder, used for directing the aero- 
plane upward or downward. 

Ellipse — An oval figure outlined by cutting a cone 
through from side to side on a plane not parallel 
to its base. Some inventors use the curves of the 
ellipse in forming the wings of aeroplanes. See 
Hyperbola and Parabola. 

Entry — The penetration of the air by the forward 
edge of aircraft surfaces. See Angle of Entry. 

Equivalent Head Area — Such an area of flat sur- 
face as will encounter head resistance equal to 
the total of that of the construction members of 
the framework — struts, braces, spars, diagonals, 
etc., of the aerial craft. 

E 

Feathering — A form of construction in which 
mounting on hinges, or pivots, permits the sur- 
faces to engage the air flatwise in one direction 
and to pass edgewise through it in other direc- 
tions. 

Fin — A fixed vertical stabilizing surface, similar in 
form to the fin on the back of a fish. 



EXPLANATIQN OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 461 

Fish Section — A term applied to the lengthwise sec- 
tion of an aircraft when the outline resembles the 
general shape of a fish — ^blunted in front and 
tapering toward the rear. This form is believed 
to encounter less resistance than any other, in 
passing through the air. 

Fixed Wheel — A wheel in a fixed mounting, so that 
it does not swivel as does a caster wheel. 

Flapping Flight — Flight by the up-and-down beating 
of wings, similar to the common flight of pigeons. 

Flexible Propeller — A propeller in w^hich the blades 
are frames covered more or less loosely with a 
fabric which is in a measure free to adjust its 
form to the compression of the air behind it as it 
revolves. 

Flying Angle — The angle of incidence of the main 
surface of an aeroplane when in flight. See 
Ground Angle. 

Footpound — The amount of force required to raise 
one pound to a height of one foot. 

Fore-and-aft — From front to rear : lengthwise : lon- 
gitudinal. 

Fuselage — The framework of the body of an aero- 
plane. 



462 EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 

G 

Glider — A structure similar to an aeroplane, but 
without motive power. 

Gliding — Flying down a slope of air with a glider, 
or with an aeroplane in which the propelling 
power is cut off. 

Gliding Angle — The flattest angle at which a given 
machine will make a perfect glide. This angle 
differs with different machines. The flatter the 
gliding angle the safer the machine. 

Ground Angle — The angle of in<?idence of an aero- 
plane surface when the machine is standing on 
the ground. 

Guy— A wire attached to a more or less distant part 
of the structure of any aircraft to prevent spread- 
ing. Also used to denote controlling wires which 
transmit the movements of the levers. 

Gyroscopic Action — The resistance which a rotating 
wheel, or wheel-like construction, exhibits when 
a disturbing force tends to change its plane of ro- 
tation. 

H 

Hangar — A structure for the housing of aeroplanes. 

Head Resistance — The resistance encountered by a 
surface moving through the air. 



EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS, 463 

Heavier-than-air — A term applied to flying machines 
whose weight is not counterbalanced or buoyed 
up by the lifting power of some gas lighter than 
air ; and which weigh more than the volume of 
air displaced. 

Helicopater — A type of flying machine in which pro- 
pellers revolving horizontally lift and sustain its 
weight in the air. 

Horizontal Rudder — The rudder surface which is 
used to steer an aircraft upward or downward : 
so-called because it lies normally in a position 
parallel to the horizon ; that is, level. 

Horse-power — An amount of work equivalent to the 
lifting of 33,000 footpounds in one mintite. See 
Footpound. 

Hyperbola — The outline formed by the cutting of a 
cone by a plane passing one side of its axis at 
such an angle that it would also intersect another 
cone placed apex to apex on the same axis. 



K 



Keel — A framework extending lengthwise under an 
aircraft to stiffen the construction : usually em- 
ployed on airships with elongated gas-bags. 



464 EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS, 

L 

Lateral — From side to side; that is, crossing the 
length fore-and-aft, and generally at right angles 
to it. 

Land-speed — Tlie speed of aircraft as related to ob- 
jects on the ground. See Air-speed. 

Landing Area — A piece of land specially prepared 
for the alighting of aeroplanes without risk of 
injnry. 

Leeway — Movement of a machine aside from the in- 
tended corirse, due to tlie lateral drift of the 
whole body of air; measured nsnally at right an- 
gles to the course. 

Lift — The raising, or sustaining effect of an aero- 
plane surface. It is expressed in the weight thus 
overcome. 

Lighter-than-air — A term used to designate aircraft 
which, owing to the buoyancy of the gas attached, 
weigh less than the volume of air which they dis- 
place. 

Longitudinal — Tn a lengthwise, or fore-and-aft di- 
rection. 

M 

Main Plane — The principal supporting surface of 
an aeroplane. In the biplane, or the multiplane 



EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 465 

type, it denotes the lowest surface, unless some 
other is decidedly larger. 

Main Landing Wheels — Those wheels on the alight- 
ing gear which take the shock in landing. 

Mast — A vertical post or strut giving angular alti- 
tude to guys or long stays. Also used (errone- 
ously) to designate a spar reaching out laterally 
or longitudinally in a horizontal position. 

Monoplane — An aeroplane with one main support- 
ing surface. A Double Monoplane has two of 
such surfaces set one behind the other (tandem) 
but on the same level. 

Multiplane — An aeroplane having several main 
planeSj at least more than three (for which there 
is the special name of triplane). 

Nacelle — The framework, or body, of a dirigible 
balloon or airship. 

Negative Angle of Incidence — An angle of incidence 
below the line of travel, and therefore expressed 
with a minus sign. Surfaces bent to certain 
curves fly successfully at negative angles of in- 
cidence, and exhibit a comparatively large lift. 
30 



466 EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 

O 

Ornifhopter — A type of flying niacliine with wing 
surfaces which are designed to raise and sustain 
the machine in the air by flapping. 

P 

Panel — Another name for Curtain — ^which see. 

Parabola — The form outlined when a cone is cut by 
a plane parallel to a line drawn on its surface 
from its apex to its base. Declared to be the cor- 
rect scientific curve for aeroplane surfaces, but 
not so proven, as yet. 

Pilot — A term widely used for an operator, or 
driver, of any form of aircraft. 

Pitch — The distance which a propeller would pro- 
gress during one revolution, if free to move in 
a medium which permitted no slip (which see) ; 
just as the thread of a bolt travels in the groove 
of its nut. 

Plane — Speaking with exactness, a flat spread of 
surface; but in aeronautics it includes also the 
curved sustaining surfaces of aeroplanes. 

Polyplane — Another term for Multiplane. 

Port — The left-hand side of an aircraft, as one faces 
forward. See Starboard. 



EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 467 

Projected Area — The total area of an irregular 
structure as projected upon a flat surface; like 
the total area of the shadow of an object cast 
by the sun upon a plane fixed at right angles to 
its rays. 

Propeller Reaction — A force produced by a single 
revolving propeller, which tends to revolve the 
machine which it is driving, in the contrary di- 
rection. This is neutralized in various ways in 



A pterygoid plane. 

the machines driven by single propellers. Where 
two propellers are used it is escaped by arranging 
them to move in opposite directions. 

Pterygoid — That type of the wings of birds which 
is long and narrow — as distinguished from the 
apteroid type. 

Pylon — A tower-shaped structure used as a derrick 
(which see) ; also for displaying signals to aero- 
nauts. 

E 

Radial Spoke — A wire spoke extending from the hub 
of an alighting wheel straight outward from the 



468 EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS, 

centre to the rim of the wheel. See Tangent 
Spoke. 

Rarefaction Side — A correct term for the incorrect 
" vacuum side/'' so-called. The side opposite the 
compression side: the forward side of a revolv- 
ing propeller blade, or the upper side of a flying 
surface, or the side of a rudder-surface turned 
away from the wind. 

Reactive Stratum— Th^ layer of compressed air be- 
neath a moving aeroplane surface, or behind a 
moving propeller blade. 

Rih — The smaller construction members used in 
building up surfaces. Generally they run fore- 
and-aft, crossing the spars or wing-bars at right 
angles, and they are bent to form the curve of the 
wings or planes. 

Rising Angle — Technically, the steepest angle at 
which any given aeroplane will rise into the air. 

Rudder — A movable surface by which the aeronaut 
is enabled to steer his craft in a desired direction. 
See Horizontal Rudder and Vertical Rudder. 

Runner — A construction similar to the runners of a 
sleigh, used for alighting on some machines, in- 
stead of the wheel alighting gear ; a skid. 



EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS, 469 

S 

Screw — Another term for propeller ; properly, screw- 
propeller. 

Single-surfaced — A term used to designate wings or 
planes whose frames are covered with fabric only 
on the upper side. See Double-surfaced. 

Skid — Another name for runner. 

Shin Friction — The retarding effect of the adher- 
ence of the air to surfaces moving rapidly 
through it. It is very slight with polished sur- 
faces, and in case of slow speeds is entirely neg- 
ligible. 

Slip — The difference between the actual progress of 
a moving propeller, and the theoretical progress 
expressed by its pitch. It is much greater in 
some propellers than in others, due to the ^^ churn- 
ing '' of the air by blades of faulty design and 
construction. 

Soaring Flight — The sailing motion in the air 
achieved by some of the larger birds without the 
flapping of their wings. It is to be distinguished 
from gliding in that it is in an upward direction. 
Soaring has never been satisfactorily explained, 
and is considered to be the secret whose discovery 



470 EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 

■will bring about the largest advance in the navi- 
gation of the air. 

Spar — A stick of considerable length nsed in the 
framing of the body of aeroplanes, or as the long 
members in wing structures. 

Stabilize— Tlo maintain balance by the automatic 
action of adjunct surfaces, as distinguished from 
the intentional manipulation of controlling de- 
vices. 

Stabilizer — Any surface whose automatic action 
tends to the maintaining of balance in the air. 

Stable Equilibrium — That equilibrium v^hich is in- 
herent in the construction of the machine, and 
does not depend upon automatic or controlling 
balancing devices. 

Starboard — The right-hand side of an aircraft as 
one faces forward. See Port. 

Starting Area — An area of ground specially pre- 
pared to facilitate the starting of aeroplanes into 
flight. 

Starting Device — Any contrivance for giving an 
aeroplane a powerful impulse or thrust into the 
air. See Derrick. 

Starting Impulse — The thrust with which an aero- 
plane is started into the air for a flight. Most 



EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS, 471 

machines depend upon the thrust of their own 
propellers, the machine being held back by force 
until the engines have worked up to flying 
speed, when it is suddenly released. 

Starting Rail — The rail upon which the starting 
truck runs before the aeroplane rises into the air. 

Starting Truck — A small vehicle upon which the 
aeroplane rests while it is gaining sufficient im- 
pulse to take flight. 

Stay — A construction member of an aeroplane sus- 
taining a pulling strain. It is usually of wire. 

Straight Pitch — That type of pitch (which see) in 
a propeller blade in which every cross-section of 
the blade makes the same angle with its axis of 
revolution. 

Strainer — Another term for Turnbuckle — which see. 

Strut — An upright, or vertical, construction member 
of an aeroplane sustaining a compression strain; 
as distinguished from a brace which sustains a 
diagonal compression strain. 

Supplementary Surface — A comparatively small 
surface used as an adjunct to the large surfaces 
for some special purpose; as, for instance, the 
preserving of balance, or for steering. 

Sustaining Surface — The large surfaces of the aero- 



472 EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 

plane whose rapid movement through the air at 
a slight angle to the horizontal sustains the 
weight of the machine. 

T 

Tail— A rear surface on an aeroplane designed to 
assist in maintaining longitudinal stability. It 
is in use principally on monoplanes, and is often 
so arranged as to serve as a rudder. 

Tail Wheel — A wheel mounted under the rear end 
of an aeroplane as a part of the alighting gear. 

Tangent — A straight line passing the convex side of 
a curved line, and touching it at one point only. 
The straight line is said to be tangent to the 
curve at the point of contact. 

Tangential — In the position or direction of a tan- 
gent. 

Tangent Spoke — A wire spoke extending from the 
outer edge of the hub of a wheel along the lino 
of a tangent until it touches the rim. Its posi- 
tion is at right angles to the course of a radial 
spoke (which see) from the same point on the 
hub. 

Tie — A construction member connecting two points 
with a pulling strain. 



EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 473 

Tightener — A device for taking up the slack of a 

stay, or tie ; as the turnbuckle. 
Tractor Propeller — A propeller placed in front, so 

that it pulls the machine through the air, instead 

of pushing, or thrusting, it from behind. 
Triplane — An aeroplane with three main surfaces, 

or decks, placed in a tier, one above another. 
Turnbuckle — A device with a nut at each end, of 

contrary pitch, so as to take a right-hand screw 

at one end, and a left-hand screw at the other; 

used for drawing together, or toward each other 

the open ends of a stay, or tie. 

U 

Uniform Pitch — That varying pitch in a propeller 
blade which causes each point in the blade to move 
forward in its own circle the same distance in 
one revolution. 

Up-wind — In a direction opposite to the current of 
the wind ; against the wind ; in the teeth of the 
wind. 

V 

Vertical Rudder — A rudder for steering toward 
right or left; so called because its surface occu- 
pies normally a vertical position. 



474 EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS. 

W 

Wake — The stream of disturbed air left in the rear 

of a moving aircraft, due mainly to the slip of the 

propeller. 
Wash — The air-currents flowing out diagonally from 

the sides of a moving aeroplane. 
Wing Bar — The larger construction members of a 

wing, running from the body outward to the tips. 

The ribs are attached to the wing bars, usually 

at right angles. 
Wing Plan — The outline of the wing or main plane 

surface as viewed from above. 
Wing Section — The outline of the wing structure of 

an aeroplane as it would appear if cut by a plane 

passing through it parallel to the longitudinal 

centre of the machine. 
Wing Skid — A small skid, or runner, placed under 

the tip of the wings of an aeroplane, to prevent 

damage in case of violent contact with the 

ground. 
Wing Tip — The extreme outer end of a wing or 

main plane. 
Wing Warping — A controlling device for restoring 

disturbed lateral balance by the forcible pulling 

down or pulling up of the tips of the wings, or of 



EXPLANATION OF AERONAUTICAL TERMS, 475 

the outer ends of the main surface of the aero- 
plane. 
Wing Wheel — A small wheel placed under the outer 
end of a wing or main plane to prevent contact 
with the ground. An improvement on the wing 
skid. 



THE END 



DEC 22 1910 



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